Detection of ocean waves by microwave radar; The modulation of short gravity-capillary waves

Short gravity-capillary waves, the predominant radar scatterers under many oceanic and radar-viewing conditions, are modulated in amplitude, velocity and orientation by the larger-scale motions of the ocean surface. These modulations render the larger scales observable to microwave radar. The high data rate and advanced technology of modern radar systems make it possible to measure these modulations and, in some cases, to display them as images of the ocean surface. While the modulation of orientation and velocity are straightforward to understand, the amplitude modulation is a dynamic response of the equilibrium short gravity-capillary waves to larger scale driving forces including straining by orbital velocities of large waves. Microwave studies of the growth and equilibrium of short wind-generated waves are reviewed. It is shown that the response of these waves to straining can produce modulations in radar cross-section greater than those due to tilting but which are wind-speed dependent. The net modulation depends strongly on the direction as well as the magnitude of the wind speed. Quantitative determination of ocean wave-height spectra from measured modulations will therefore be a complicated procedure. Measurements of ocean waves with CW Doppler and Synthetic Aperture radars are discussed in the light of these findings.     

Processing of ocean wave data from a synthetic aperture radar

The usual operation of a synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) assumes that the sensor platform moves at a constant velocity along a straight line and that objects to be imaged are stationary. Moving ocean waves perturb the Doppler frequencies in the SAR phase histories, and when processed in a conventional manner, they produce images of waves that are dispersed and thus defocused in the azimuth (along-track) direction. This defocusing can be compensated in the processor by readjusting the azimuth focus by an amount proportional to the velocity of the wave.The relationship among the parameters of the radar system, the SAR processor, and the relative target velocity is, theoretically determined for radars that operate at both X- and L-band frequencies. Experimental observations support these calculations. The effect of varying spectrum sampling, range focus, and number of coherent averages or looks is also observed.     

On the relationship of radar backscatter to wind speed and fetch

The physics of the interaction of electromagnetic waves with the ocean surface has been an active area of research for a number of years. We present here the results of satellite and aircraft experiments to investigate the ability of active microwave radars to infer surface wind speeds remotely. Data obtained from the recent National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Skylab experiment are compared with surface wind speeds measured by low-flying aircraft and ships-of-opportunity and found to give useful estimates of the oceanic wind field. We also investigate the influence of varying wave height on radar measurements of wind speed by measuring the backscattering cross-section for constant wind speed but variable wave conditions. We conclude that this effect is of little importance.     

On the use of marine radar imagery for estimation of properties of the directional spectrum of the sea surface

Abstract

The “sea clutter” observable on a standard marine navigation radar has long been recognized as a potential source of information about sea state. In the last decade a number of researchers have published “directional wave spectra” calculated from marine radar images. Our group has continued this line of research using a unique radar system that digitizes and stores radar images eight bits deep directly related to the strength of the radar backscatter.

Our system was deployed on the CSS Hudson during the Grand Banks ERS‐1 SAR Wave Spectrum Validation Experiment cruise in November 1991. We collected in excess of 3000 sea surface backscatter images. From this dataset we have produced a number of directional spectra in an effort to understand the performance of the sensor and to compare it with other wave determining instruments and models.

Analysis has shown a strong azimuthal asymmetry both in the strength of the backscattered signal and in the relative strength of spectral peaks. This asymmetry is similar inform to that observed in scatterometer data. Unbiased estimation of the “true” image spectrum requires removal of these asymmetries. This estimation has been accomplished through calculation and removal of a non‐linear multi‐parameter least‐squares model of the backscatter from each image, and averaging of spectra from many look directions. The resulting spectra compare favourably with those calculated from directional wave buoy data, satellite and aircraft SARs and other directional wave measurements and models.     

ERS‐1 and Almaz estimates of directional ocean wave spectra conditioned by simultaneous aircraft SAR and buoy measurements

Abstract

The European Space Agency ERS‐1 C‐band V‐V polarization synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and the Russian Almaz S‐band H‐H polarization SAR are compared for their wavenumber response to ocean wave fields existing on 23 November 1991 at the Grand Banks site of the North American ERS‐1 SAR Wave Spectra Validation Experiment. Two‐dimensional wave spectra from two Wavec heave, pitch and roll buoys and a Canadian CV‐580 aircraft C‐band V‐V polarization SAR are used to condition a linear modulation transfer model of wave imaging with SAR. A model of hydrodynamic modulation is included with the velocity bunching and tilt imaging mechanisms to better understand wind and wave interactions. Krogstad's quasi‐linear formulation of Hasselmann's ocean‐SAR integral transform is applied to model SAR velocity bunching and azimuth smearing. Narrow and broad bandwidth components of azimuth wavenumber response for the aircraft SAR are associated with, respectively, non‐linear and incoherent velocity smearing during Doppler resolution of the radar scene. The stationary resolutions of the SAR systems are compared for homogeneous scenes of wind‐roughened, but fetch‐limited, sea surfaces. This comparison is conducted in the Chesapeake Bay of Maryland using ERS‐1 and Almaz satellite imagery collected on 9 May 1992 and 14 May 1991, respectively. The results confirm that SAR imaging of ocean waves can be improved by flying platforms with low R/V (range/velocity) ratios to alleviate the azimuth velocity smear, and near‐nadir incidence angles to increase the effect of tilt modulation.     

On the Role of Wind Direction in ERS SAR Signatures of Internal Waves on the Iberian Shelf

The relationship between internal wave (IW) signatures in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images and wind velocity is investigated. The effect of the wind velocity relative to the IW propagation direction on the IW signature is studied by means of a defined signature mode parameter ( S m ). S m is the parameter that quantifies the signature of the IW intensity profile in relation to the mean backscatter of the image background.

A wind contrast model based on a simple first-order Bragg scattering theory is combined with hydrodynamic modulation theory to explain the modulation of IW signatures. It takes into account the modulation of short-scale surface waves by the effect of the relative variations of wind velocity and the surface currents generated by the IWs.

It is shown that the signature mode parameter increases with the angle between the wind velocity and the IW propagation direction so that IWs propagating against the wind direction are imaged mostly as positive sign signatures, while those propagating in the wind direction are mostly negative sign signatures.     

Airborne measurements of the ocean's Ku‐band radar cross‐section at low incidence angles

Abstract

Ocean backscatter data obtained with a K_u‐band airborne radar are presented along with coincident altimeter and directional wave spectral estimates. These data were collected using one sensor, NASA's radar ocean wave spectrometer (ROWS). The measurements are compared with an electromagnetic scattering model for perfectly conducting Gaussian random surfaces. The normalized radar cross‐section (NRCS) data cover those incidence angles (0–20°) where both quasi‐specular and Bragg scattering mechanisms are expected. Under certain conditions, identification and separation of these two mechanisms is possible. The scanning radar allows observations of the azimuthal variations in NRCS that are at times indicative of short‐scale wave generation in the wind direction.     

The effect of a regional increase in ocean surface roughness on the tropospheric circulation: a GCM experiment

The sensitivity of the atmospheric circulation to an increase in ocean surface roughness in the Southern Hemisphere storm track is investigated in a paired general circulation model experiment. Such a change in sea roughness could be induced by ocean waves generated by storms. Two extended permanent-July runs are made. One with standard sea surface roughness, the other with ten times as a large surface roughness over open sea poleward of 40° S. The regional increase in ocean surface roughness significantly modifies the tropospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere. The strongest effect is the reduction of tropospheric winds (by 2 m/s or 10%) above the area with increased roughness. The poleward eddy momentum flux is reduced in the upper troposphere and the meridional eddy sensible heat flux is reduced in the lower troposphere. Zonal mean and eddy kinetic energy are consistently reduced.     

Experimental observation of strong mixing due to internal wave focusing over sloping terrain

This paper reports on experimental observation of internal waves that are focused due to a sloping topography. A remarkable mixing of the density field was observed. This result is of importance for the deep ocean, where internal waves are believed to play a role in mixing. The experiments were performed on the rotating platform at the Coriolis Laboratory, Grenoble. The rotation, its modulation and density stratification were set to be in the internal wave regime. After applying various data processing techniques we observe internal wave rays, which converge to a limiting state: the wave attractor. At longer time scales we observe a remarkably efficient mixing of the density field, possibly responsible for driving observed sheared mean flows and topographic Rossby waves. We offer the hypothesis that focusing of internal waves to the wave attractor leads to the mixing.     

Wave attenuation in the marginal ice zone during LIMEX

Abstract

During the Labrador Ice Margin Experiments, LIMEX ‘87 in March 1987 and LIMEX ‘89 in March and April 1989, the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) CV‐580 aircraft collected synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image data over the marginal ice zone off the east coast of Newfoundland, Canada. One aspect of these experimental programs was the observation of ocean waves penetrating into the marginal ice zone (MIZ). Based upon directional wavenumber spectra derived from SAR image data, the wave attenuation rate is estimated using SAR image spectra and compared with predictions from a model developed by Liu and Mollo‐Christensen (1988). The wave and ice conditions were considerably different in LIMEX ‘87 and LIMEX ‘89. However, the model‐data comparisons are very good for all ice conditions observed. Both the model and the SAR‐derived wave attenuation rates show a characteristic roll‐over at high wavenumbers. A model for the eddy viscosity is proposed, using dimensional analysis, as a simple function of ice roughness and wave‐induced velocity. Eddy viscosities derived from SAR and wave buoy data for the wave attenuation rate show a trend that is consistent with the proposed model.     

The experimental oceanographic satellite Seasat-A

A Seasat-A Project was conceived and is being implemented to establish the utility of an array of microwave instruments in space for oceanic research and marine technology. The instruments include: a short-pulse radar altimeter, a wind-field scatterometer, an experimental synthetic-aperture imaging radar, a scanning multifrequency microwave radiometer, and a supporting visual and infrared radiometer. All weather, day-night measurements of sea-surface temperature, surface wind speed and direction, sea state and directional wave spectra will be made, the latter over limited areas and times because of operational limitations on the synthetic-aperture-radar instrument. Highly precise (&<0.1 m) range information from the radar altimeter, in combination with an accurate satellite emphemeris, will be used to infer dynamic departures of sea level from the marine geoid produced by tides, currents, and storm surges. Sea ice will be observed by the synthetic-aperture radar, radar altimeter and the scanning multifrequency microwave radiometer, with particular emphasis on demonstrating their capability to determine polar ice coverage, dynamics and navigability.The satellite will be launched into a high-inclination (108 °), non-sun-synchronous, nearly-circular 800 km orbit in May of 1978. The orbit is such that a dense network traced out by the subsatellite point (18.5-km equatorial separation of ascending orbits) will be obtained in 152 days for geodesy. The satellite is designed for a minimum lifetime of one year; with expendables, including orbit adjust capability, for three.All data, except those obtained from the synthetic-aperture radar, will be collected globally, and returned, as measured, first by a 25 kbps data stream, and then after playback at a rate of 800 kbps from the on-board tape recorder. Synthetic-aperture radar data will be returned in real time only, over a 20-MHz analog telemetry link. We expect that satellite data will be distributed through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations Environmental Data Service. Processed data are expected to be generally available through this agency within a very few months of launch, following preliminary assessment of instrument operation and evaluation of performance.     

Radar backscatter from the ocean: Dependence on surface friction velocity

From the mid 1960s to the present, the normalized radar cross-section (NRCS) of the ocean has been measured using airborne radars operating over a frequency range of 0.4 to 14 GHz. Analyses of these data have shown that the NRCS was proportional to the ocean surface wind speed raised to some power, but the values of the exponent remained in dispute. This paper extends previous work and uses these NRCS measurements to demonstrate that to the first order, the NRCS is a function of only the friction velocity at the ocean's surface. Further analyses characterize the dependence of the NRCS on radar variables such as frequency, incidence angle, polarization, etc. Finally, recommendations are made for using Ku-band radars at large incidence angles for remote sensing of the wind friction velocity vector.     

Generation of oceanic internal gravity waves by a cyclonic surface stress disturbance

Atmospheric cyclones with strong winds significantly impact ocean circulation, regional sea surface temperature, and deep water formation across the global oceans. Thus they are expected to play a key role in a variety of energy transport mechanisms. Even though wind-generated internal gravity waves are thought to contribute significantly to the energy balance of the deep ocean, their excitation mechanisms are only partly understood.The present study investigates the generation of internal gravity waves during a geostrophic adjustment process in a Boussinesq model with axisymmetric geometry. The atmospheric disturbance is set by an idealized pulse of cyclonic wind stress with a Rankine vortex structure. Strength, radius and duration of the forcing are varied. The effect upon wave generation of stratification with variable mixed-layer depth is also examined.Results indicate that internal gravity waves are generated after approximately one inertial period. The outward radial energy flux is dominated by waves having structure close to vertical mode-1 and with frequency close to the inertial frequency. Less energetic higher mode waves are observed to be generated close to the sea floor underneath the storm. The total radiated energy corresponds to approximately 0.02% of the wind input. Deeper mixed-layer conditions as well as weaker stratification reduce this fraction.The low energy transfer rates suggest that other processes that drive vertical motion like surface heat fluxes, turbulent motion, mixed region collapse and storm translation are essential for significant energy extraction by internal gravity waves to occur.     

Boundary-layer effects on mountain waves: a new look at some historical studies

Early studies of mountain waves reported various results that have rarely been investigated since. These include: large-amplitude mountain waves above an unstable boundary layer much higher than the mountains; a repeated downwind drift and upwind jump of mountain waves; and larger vertical wind magnitude near sunrise and/or sunset. These are investigated using over 3,000 radiosondes and meso-strato-troposphere (MST) radar. Superadiabatic temperature gradients are found beneath mountain waves, explainable by convection which appears to raise the mountain-wave launching height. Movement of mountain-wave patterns is studied by a new method using height–time vertical wind data. A swaying motion of mountain waves, with period of a few minutes, appears to be equally upwind and downwind, rather than asymmetric at the heights measurable. Also, vertical wind shows no change in mean, variance or extreme values near sunrise and sunset, despite the expected diurnal changes of boundary-layer structure. An explanation for differences between MST radar and other measurements and models of mountain waves is suggested in terms of more than one variety of mountain wave. Type 1 has stable air near the ground; type 2 is above a convective/turbulent boundary layer of significant height as compared to the mountains.     

双/多基地天气雷达探测小椭球降水粒子的侧向散射能力

首先给出小椭球粒子侧向和后向散射截面的表达式,将其中相关参数用双基地雷达坐标系中的量表示,在定义小椭球粒子侧向散射能力后,分别推导出发射水平与垂直偏振波条件下估算侧向散射能力的算式,并通过仿真计算,获得各高度上的侧向散射能力和分布情况.得出的主要结果为:(1)发射水平偏振波时,在低高度的等高面上,当离开基线垂直向上或向下距离增加时,侧向散射能力先逐渐变小到最小值后,再逐渐增大.在基线左、右的延线上也基本呈这种分布,仅在主站与子站的垂直方向上存在侧向散射能力的最低区域.随着等高面高度升高,侧向散射能力分布情况基本相似,仅子站上下的弱侧向散射值有所提高.(2)发射垂直偏振波时,在低高度水平面上无论被探测的扁旋转椭球粒子处在该平面上(除主站与子站张培昌等:双/多基地天气雷达探测小椭球降水粒子的侧向散射能力.     

Effect of wind shear on atmospheric wave instabilities revealed by FM/CW radar observations

An FM/CW radar sounding system designed and built by one of us (Richter, 1969) reveals atmospheric wave structure in unparalleled detail.The most outstanding features evident in the record are; internal gravity waves; features resembling Kelvin/Helmholtz instability structures; and multiple layering, often with lamina only a few meters thick.This paper shows a variety of atmospheric structural patterns and compares them with several hypothetical models of internal waves to obtain more insight into the atmospheric processes at work. Special attention is given to the distribution of the Richardson number in trapped and untrapped gravity waves. It is proposed that the multiple layers result from untrapped internal gravity waves whose propagation vector is directed nearly vertically within very stable height regions. It is argued that the layers are caused by dynamic instability resulting from reduction in the Richardson number due to wave induced shear and to some background wind shear when the amplitude-to-wavelength ratio grows during propagation into thermally stable height regions of the atmosphere.     

Fine-Scale Structure Observed In A Stable Atmospheric Boundary Layer By Sodar And Kite-Borne Tethersonde

Co-located high resolution profiles of acoustic backscatter,wind vector and potential temperature are presented, measured within the stable atmosphericboundary layer over an Antarctic ice shelf. Acoustic profiles from a monostaticacoustic radar (Sodar) indicate complex structure within the boundary layer, whilstwind and temperature profiles from a tethersonde show corresponding bands of differingstability. Internal waves and fossil convection are shown to invalidate attemptsto compare backscatter measurements with theoretical estimates based on local wind and temperature gradients, but during ideal conditions, a qualitative agreementis observed.     

New developments in FM-CW radar sounding

Simultaneous lidar and FM-CW (frequency modulated-continuous wave) radar observations are presented and both common and different features observed with the two remote sensors are described. Among the common features are Kelvin-Helmholtz (K-H) waves and turbulent structures. The potential of the FM-CW radar as a meteorological tool for aiding fog dissipation forecasts is illustrated. The data also indicate that the radar often detects echoes from height regions which coincide with cloud tops. A new FM-CW radar sounder is described which incorporates scanning capability and which is fully mobile. Examples of recent observations are presented illustrating the capabilities of this second generation radar sounder.Future applications of the FM-CW radar sounder, such as investigations of the exact nature of the mechanism responsible for the radar returns, require accurate calibration of the radar sounder. It is shown that resolution and sensitivity of a linear frequency-modulated FM-CW radar depend on the time delay of the signal. Range dependency on resolution and sensitivity is calculated for various periodic and stochastic perturbations in a linear modulation and good agreement is found between calculated and measured values.     

Wind–wave stabilization by a foam layer between the atmosphere and the ocean

The study is motivated by recent findings of the decrease in the momentum transfer from strong winds to sea. The Kelvin–Helmholtz instability (KHI) of a three-fluid system of air, foam and water is examined within the range of intermediately short surface waves. The foam-layer thickness necessary for effective separation of the atmosphere and the ocean is estimated. Due to high density contrasts in the three-fluid system, even a relatively thin foam layer between the atmosphere and the ocean can provide a significant stabilization of the water surface by the wavelength shift of the instability towards smaller scales. It is conjectured that such stabilization qualitatively explains the observed reduction of roughness and drag.