Effects of Sea-Surface Waves and Ocean Spray on Air-Sea Momentum Fluxes

The effects of sea-surface waves and ocean spray on the marine atmospheric boundary layer(MABL) at different wind speeds and wave ages were investigated. An MABL model was developed that introduces a wave-induced component and spray force to the total surface stress. The theoretical model solution was determined assuming the eddy viscosity coefficient varied linearly with height above the sea surface. The wave-induced component was evaluated using a directional wave spectrum and growth rate. Spray force was described using interactions between ocean-spray droplets and wind-velocity shear. Wind profiles and sea-surface drag coefficients were calculated for low to high wind speeds for wind-generated sea at different wave ages to examine surface-wave and ocean-spray effects on MABL momentum distribution. The theoretical solutions were compared with model solutions neglecting wave-induced stress and/or spray stress. Surface waves strongly affected near-surface wind profiles and sea-surface drag coefficients at low to moderate wind speeds. Drag coefficients and near-surface wind speeds were lower for young than for old waves. At high wind speeds, ocean-spray droplets produced by wind-tearing breaking-wave crests affected the MABL strongly in comparison with surface waves, implying that wave age affects the MABL only negligibly. Low drag coefficients at high wind caused by ocean-spray production increased turbulent stress in the sea-spray generation layer, accelerating near-sea-surface wind. Comparing the analytical drag coefficient values with laboratory measurements and field observations indicated that surface waves and ocean spray significantly affect the MABL at different wind speeds and wave ages.     

Effects of mesoscale sea-surface temperature fronts on the marine atmospheric boundary layer

A numerical modelling study is presented focusing on the effects of mesoscale sea-surface temperature (SST) variability on surface fluxes and the marine atmospheric boundary-layer structure. A basic scenario is examined having two regions of SST anomaly with alternating warm/cold or cold/warm water regions. Conditions upstream from the anomaly region have SST values equal to the ambient atmosphere temperature, creating an upstream neutrally stratified boundary layer. Downstream from the anomaly region the SST is also set to the ambient atmosphere value. When the warm anomaly is upstream from the cold anomaly, the downstream boundary layer exhibits a more complex structure because of convective forcing and mixed layer deepening upstream from the cold anomaly. An internal boundary layer forms over the cold anomaly in this case, generating two distinct layers over the downstream region. When the cold anomaly is upstream from the warm anomaly, mixing over the warm anomaly quickly destroys the shallow cold layer, yielding a more uniform downstream boundary-layer vertical structure compared with the warm-to- cold case. Analysis of the momentum budget indicates that turbulent momentum flux divergence dominates the velocity field tendency, with pressure forcing accounting for only about 20% of the changes in momentum. Parameterization of surface fluxes and boundary-layer structure at these scales would be very difficult because of their dependence on subgrid-scale SST spatial order. Simulations of similar flow over smaller scale fronts (<5 km) suggest that small-scale SST variability might be parameterized in mesoscale models by relating the effective heat flux to the strength of the SST variance.     

Study of near-surface models for large-eddy simulations of a neutrally stratified atmospheric boundary layer

In large-eddy simulations (LES) of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), near-surface models are often used to supplement subgrid-scale (SGS) turbulent stresses when a major fraction of the energetic scales within the surface layer cannot be resolved with the temporal and spatial resolution at hand. In this study, we investigate the performance of both dynamic and non-dynamic eddy viscosity models coupled with near-surface models in simulations of a neutrally stratified ABL. Two near-surface models that are commonly used in LES of the atmospheric boundary layer are considered. Additionally, a hybrid Reynolds- averaged/LES eddy viscosity model is presented, which uses Prandtl’s mixing length model in the vicinity of the surface, and blends in with the dynamic Smagorinsky model away from the surface. Present simulations show that significant portions of the modelled turbulent stresses are generated by the near-surface models, and they play a dominant role in capturing the expected logarithmic wind profile. Visualizations of the instantaneous vorticity field reveal that flow structures in the vicinity of the surface depend on the choice of the near-surface model. Among the three near-surface models studied, the hybrid eddy viscosity model gives the closest agreement with the logarithmic wind profile in the surface layer. It is also observed that high levels of resolved turbulence stresses can be maintained with the so-called canopy stress model while producing good agreement with the logarithmic wind profile.     

Structures and characteristics of the windy atmospheric boundary layer in the South China Sea region during cold surges

An observational analysis of the structures and characteristics of a windy atmospheric boundary layer during a cold air outbreak in the South China Sea region is reported in this paper. It is found that the main structures and characteristics are the same as during strong wind episodes with cold air outbreaks on land. The high frequency turbulent fluctuations(period<1 min) are nearly random and isotropic with weak coherency, but the gusty wind disturbances(1 min相似文献   

Application of Linear Thermodynamics to the Atmospheric System.Part Ⅱ: Exemplification of Linear Phenomenological Relations in the Atmospheric System

将边界层相似性理论同线性热力学理论结合，间接地以观测实验事实证明大气边界层内线性唯象关系是成立的，而且线性湍流输送系数同相应的线性唯象系数成正比关系。但实验事实表明，大涡对流的混合层线性唯象系数成正比关系。但实验事实表明，大涡对流的混合层线性唯象关系是不成立的，混合层内湍流输送过程是一种强的非线性过程。所以，对流边界层是一种远离平衡态非线性区的热力学状态。地转风和热成风是一种大气系统特有的动力过程和热力过程和交叉耦合现象，这是大气系统交叉耦合现象的一个实际例证。     

The Adaptation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer to a Change in Surface Roughness

The adaptation of the atmospheric boundary layer to a change in the underlying surface roughness is an interesting problem and hence much research, theoretical, experimental, and numerical, has been undertaken. Within the atmospheric boundary layer an accurate numerical model for the turbulent properties of the atmospheric boundary layer needs to be implemented if physically realistic results are to be obtained. Here, the adaptation of the atmospheric boundary layer to a change in surface roughness is investigated using a first-order turbulence closure model, a one-and-a-half-order turbulence closure model and a second-order turbulence closure model. Perturbations to the geostrophic wind and the pressure gradients are included and it is shown that the second-order turbulence closure model, namely the standard k - model, is inferior to a lower-order closure model if a modification to limit the turbulent eddy size within the atmospheric boundary layer is not included within the model.     

WRF模式中QNSE方案的湍流长度尺度系数的调整试验研究

边界层参数化方案中湍流混合对数值模拟起着重要的作用,湍流混合作用的恰当描述对于温度、湿度、风场以及降水的准确模拟至关重要。我国长江中下游流域人口密集,暴雨灾害频发,很有必要寻找一种适合该地区降水模拟的边界层参数化方案。本文运用WRF（Weather Research and Forecasting）中尺度数值模式,以QNSE（Quasi-Normal Scale Elimination）边界层参数化方案为基础,将其中湍流混合长度尺度系数调整为可变参数。本文将Noh et al.（2003）提出的Prandtl公式与Janji?提出的修正湍流长度尺度系数的方法相结合,通过考虑非局地项的强迫、地表稳定度与边界层高度对湍流长度尺度系数的影响,强调大气的动力结构特征与热力结构特征对湍流混合的共同影响,从而提高QNSE边界层参数化方案在不同地理环境下的模拟能力。文章通过进行长江中下游地区的典型暴雨试验,将调整参数后的QNSE方案与原方案进行比较,重点分析调整参数后的方案与原方案对关键基本气象要素场、边界层结构特征以及降水的模拟能力,并将模拟结果与观测结果进行对比,结果表明:调整参数后的方案一定程度上改进了地表温度、边界层结构以及降水的模拟效果。进一步研究表明,调整参数后的方案主要通过改变边界层混合缓解水汽混合比、位温模拟方面的误差。     

农林复合带一维非静力大气边界层模式及其模拟分析

建立了一个农林复合带地区一维非静力大气边界层能量闭合模式，对1000m以下的大气边界层内的风、温、湿作了24h的预报，并对下垫面3种不同参数化方案(农作物、森林、无植被)的输出结果与实测值进行了分析和比较；同时通过敏感性试验，突出比较了农作物和森林下垫面对大气边界层垂直流场，湍流垂直交换和湍能的影响。结果表明，本模式能改善边界层风速、位温和湿度预报的模拟效果，下垫面植被对边界层气象要素大小和分布有显著的作用，对湍能垂直分布有一定影响。     

南京近郊地区初冬大气边界层风温场的探测和分析

利用现场低空探空探测所获取的实测资料,揭示了南京近郊初冬大气边界层风、温场在不同天气条件下的特征,得出了晴天温廓线日变化的模型,用谐波分析探讨了温度和风随高度分布和随时间演变的特征。     

Lidar Measurements of Aerosols in the Tropical Atmosphere

Measurements of atmospheric aerosols and trace gases using the Laser radar (lidar) techniques, have been in pro-gress since 1985 at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune (18o32’N, 73o51’E, 559 m AMSL), India. These observations carried out during nighttime in the lower atmosphere (up to 5.5 km AGL), employing an Argon ion / Helium-Neon lidar provided information on the nature, size, concentration and other characteristics of the constituents present in the tropical atmosphere. The time-height variations in aerosol concentration and associated layer structure exhibit marked differences between the post-sunset and pre-sunrise periods besides their seasonal va-riation with maximum concentration during pre-monsoon / winter and minimum concentration during monsoon months. These observations also revealed the influence of the terrain of the experimental site and some selected me-teorological parameters on the aerosol vertical distributions. The special observations of aerosol vertical profiles ob-tained in the nighttime atmospheric boundary layer during October 1986 through September 1989 showed that the most probable occurrence of mixing depth lies between 450 and 550 m, and the multiple stably stratified aerosol lay-ers present above the mixing depth with maximum frequency of occurrence at around 750 m. This information on nighttime mixing depth / stable layer derived from lidar aerosol observations showed good agreement with the height of the ground-based shear layer / elevated layer observed by the simultaneously operated sodar at the lidar site.     

Impact of waves on air-sea exchange of sensible heat and momentum

The impact of sea waves on sensible heat and momentum fluxes is described. The approach is based on the conservation of heat and momentum in the marine atmospheric surface layer. The experimental fact that the drag coefficient above the sea increases considerably with increasing wind speed, while the exchange coefficient for sensible heat (Stanton number) remains virtually independent of wind speed, is explained by a different balance of the turbulent and the wave-induced parts in the total fluxes of momentum and sensible heat.Organised motions induced by waves support the wave-induced stress which dominates the surface momentum flux. These organised motions do not contribute to the vertical flux of heat. The heat flux above waves is determined, in part, by the influence of waves upon the turbulence diffusivity.The turbulence diffusivity is altered by waves in an indirect way. The wave-induced stress dominates the surface flux and decays rapidly with height. Therefore the turbulent stress above waves is no longer constant with height. That changes the balance of the turbulent kinetic energy and of the dissipation rate and, hence the diffusivity.The dependence of the exchange coefficient for heat on wind speed is usually parameterized in terms of a constant Stanton number. However, an increase of the exchange coefficient with wind speed is not ruled out by field measurements and could be parametrized in terms of a constant temperature roughness length. Because of the large scatter, field data do not allow us to establish the actual dependence. The exchange coefficient for sensible heat, calculated from the model, is virtually independent of wind speed in the range of 3–10 ms^-1. For wind speeds above 10 ms^-1 an increase of 10% is obtained, which is smaller than that following from the constant roughness length parameterization.The investigation was in part supported by the Netherlands Geosciences Foundation (GOA) with financial aid from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).     

ON THE PDF MODELS FOR ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION IN BOUNDARY LAYER

In this paper, taking its turbulent exchange coefficient as a function of the Lagrangian timescale and standard variance of the turbulence in atmosphere, the atmospheric dispersion PDFmodels are obtained on the basis of atmospheric diffusion K-theory. In the model the statistics ofwind speed are directly used as its parameters instead of classic dispersion parameters. The bi-Gaussian PDF is derived in convective boundary layer (CBL), from the statistics of verticalvelocity in both of the downdraft and updraft regions that are investigated theoretically in the otherpart of this paper. Giving the driven parameters of the CBL (including the convective velocity scalew* and the mixing depth h_i) and the time-averaged wind speed at release level, the PDF model isable to simulate the distribution of concentration released at any levels in the CBL. The PDF'ssimulations are fairly consistent with the measurements in CONDORS experiment or the resultsbrought out by some numerical simulations.     

Some Characteristics of the Surface Boundary Layer of a Strong Cold Air Process over Southern China

In southern China,cold air is a common weather process during the winter season;it can cause strong wind,sharp temperature decreases,and even the snow or freezing rain events.However,the features of the atmospheric boundary layer during cold air passage are not clearly understood due to the lack of comprehensive observation data,especially regarding turbulence.In this study,four-layer gradient meteorological observation data and one-layer,10-Hz ultrasonic anemometer-thermometer monitoring data from the northern side of Poyang Lake were employed to study the main features of the surface boundary layer during a strong cold-air passage over southern China.The results show that,with the passage of a cold air front,the wind speed exhibits low-frequency variations and that the wind systematically descends.During the strong wind period,the wind speed increases with height in the surface layer.Regular gust packets are superimposed on the basic strong wind flow.Before the passage of cold air,the wind gusts exhibit a coherent structure.The wind and turbulent momentum fluxes are small,although the gusty wind momentum flux is slightly larger than the turbulent momentum flux.However,during the invasion of cold air,both the gusty wind and turbulent momentum fluxes increase rapidly with wind speed,and the turbulent momentum flux is larger than the gusty wind momentum flux during the strong wind period.After the cold air invasion,this structure almost disappears.     

大气对黑潮延伸区中尺度海洋涡旋的响应——冬季暖、冷涡个例分析

采用动态合成、带通滤波等方法,通过对冬季黑潮延伸区暖、冷两个中尺度海洋涡旋的分析,研究了大气对中尺度海洋涡旋的响应特征。结果表明,海表温度（SST）与近海面风速的正相关关系在涡旋的动态合成图上清晰可见,暖（冷）涡上空对应10 m风速的极大（小）值,即海洋对大气的强迫作用在日时间尺度上表现显著;SST高低值中心基本对应10 m风无辐散区,暖（冷）涡上空为异常正（负）涡度分布;暖（冷）涡上空潜热、感热通量增大（减小）,降低（增大）大气稳定度,从而加强（减弱）边界层垂直混合作用,使得海洋大气边界层增厚（变薄）。暖（冷）涡旋上空对应摩擦速度极大（小）值,反映了湍流粘性力在高（低）海温中心增大（减小）的特征,表明动量垂直混合机制在中小尺度海气相互作用中起着主要作用。中尺度海洋涡旋能够影响大气瞬变扰动,大气瞬变扰动强度在暖（冷）涡下游上空出现极大（小）值,该影响不仅表现在海洋大气边界层,在自由大气中低层也有较为清晰的反映。此外,从能量转换的角度入手,发现斜压能量转换在中尺度海洋涡旋影响大气瞬变扰动强度中贡献明显。     

中尺度数值模拟中的边界层多尺度湍流参数化方案

该文在多尺度湍流理论的研究成果基础上, 将边界层湍流风谱与平均量的梯度相联系, 建立了边界层多尺度湍流参数化子模式, 之后放入MM5模式中进行了个例模拟研究, 并与MM5模式附带的M RF边界层参数化、Blackadar高分辨率边界层参数化的模拟结果进行比较和分析。结果表明, 多尺度湍流理论能够反映出实际大气边界层中热量垂直输送的规律, 将其用于中尺度数值预报模式的边界层物理过程参数化是可行的; 多尺度湍流参数化在地表层和边界层内各个层次上都着重考虑含能量最大的涡的作用以及水平热力不均匀性的影响, 因此在地形和下垫面比较复杂的区域, 对中尺度天气系统的模拟有进一步发展的前景。     

Investigation on the fine structure of sea-breeze during ESCOMPTE experiment

Surface and remote-sensing instruments deployed during ESCOMPTE experiment over the Marseille area, along the Mediterranean coast, were used to investigate the fine structure of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) during sea-breeze circulation in relation to pollutant transport and diffusion. Six sea-breeze events are analyzed with a particular focus on 25 June 2001.Advection of cool and humid marine air over land has a profound influence on the daytime ABL characteristics. This impact decreases rapidly with the inland distance from the sea. Nearby the coast (3 km inland), the mixing height Zi rises up to 750 m and falls down after 15:00 (UT) when the breeze flow reaches its maximum intensity. A more classical evolution of the ABL is observed at only 11-km inland where Zi culminates in the morning and stabilizes in the afternoon at about 1000 m height.Fine inspection of the data revealed an oscillation of the sea-breeze with a period about 2 h 47 min. This feature, clearly discernable for 3 days at least, is present in several atmospheric variables such as wind, temperature, not only at the ground but also aloft in the ABL as observed by sodar/RASS and UHF wind profilers. In particular, the mixing height Zi deduced from UHF profilers observations is affected also by the same periodicity. This pulsated sea-breeze is observed principally above Marseille and, at the northern and eastern shores of the Berre pond.In summary, the periodic intrusion over land of cool marine air modifies the structure of the ABL in the vicinity of the coast from the point of view of stability, turbulent motions and pollutants concentration. An explanation of the source of this pulsated sea-breeze is suggested.     

Modelling the One-Dimensional Stable Boundary Layer with an E−ℓ Turbulence Closure Scheme

The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) model of Weng and Taylor with E−ℓ turbulence closure is applied to simulate the one-dimensional stably stratified ABL. The model has been run for nine hours from specified initial wind, potential temperature and turbulent kinetic energy profiles, and with a specified cooling rate applied at the surface. Different runs are conducted for different cooling rates, geostrophic winds and surface roughnesses. The results are discussed and compared with other models, large-eddy simulations and published field data.     

非均匀网格的过渡湍流理论及其在大气边界层数值模拟中的应用

本文将Stull提出的均匀网格下的过渡湍流理论推广到非均匀网格情形，推广的非均匀网格的过渡湍流理论满足Stull提出的对过渡矩阵系数的要求并具有清晰的物理意义。然后，将非均匀网格的过渡湍流理论应用于一维大气边界层数值模式中，对Wangara资料进行了模拟，并与均匀网格情形进行了对比。计算表明，非均匀网格的过渡湍流模式能很好地模拟Wangara大气边界层平均量与湍流量的变化；本文非均匀网格的过渡湍流理论的推广是可行的，它可能会在大气边界层数值模拟及其他方面（如：中尺度模式）得到应用。     

边界层方案对华北低层O3垂直分布模拟的影响

利用WRF-Chem模式,采用3种边界层参数化方案 (YSU, MYJ和ACM2),针对1个晴空、静稳日 (2013年8月26日20:00—27日20:00(北京时)) 进行模拟,着重分析不同边界层参数化方案对夜间残留层形成及日出前后O₃浓度垂直分布形式的模拟效果,并与固城站地面及垂直同步观测资料进行对比。结果表明:3种边界层参数化方案均能够模拟出温度及风速的区域分布形式以及风温垂直结构的变化特征;相比之下,MYJ方案模拟的夜间边界层高度较YSU方案和ACM2方案明显偏高,该对比结果可能是导致近地面污染物浓度模拟差异的重要原因;在夜间稳定层结至日出后稳定状态打破的边界层结构演变过程中,采用YSU方案和ACM2方案模拟的温度和风速垂直扩线形式与观测结果更为接近;同样采用非局地闭合的YSU方案和同时考虑局地和非局地闭合的ACM2方案,对于边界层高度内O₃浓度垂直分布形式的模拟效果具有明显优势。