黄河中游一次致洪暴雨过程的形成机理

利用常规观测资料、NCEP再分析资料等,对黄河中游2013年7月21-22日的致洪暴雨过程的形成机理进行分析。结果发现:1)地面辐合线的形成和维持是本次过程降水强度大和降水集中的主要原因。中尺度雨团和地面中尺度辐合线相对应,地面中尺度辐合线的形成和冷空气扩散补充相对应。第一次冷空气扩散,促使长武站附近地面中尺度辐合线的形成和维持;第二次冷空气补充,促使北洛河流域、无定河流域的地面中尺度辐合线形成并维持。2)暴雨过程发生前,其上空存在干暖盖的结构特征,是能量积累及位势不稳定层结结构建立的关键;暴雨发生过程中干空气侵入对中尺度对流云团起激发作用。3)暴雨、大暴雨发生过程中水汽的垂直输送明显,暴雨区上空1000-100 h Pa相对湿度均在90%以上。     

2011年9月陕西关中一次连阴雨中暴雨过程机理分析

利用常规观测资料、NCEP1°×1°再分析资料、卫星云图资料等,对陕西关中2011年9月5—6日的连阴雨中的暴雨过程进行诊断分析,结果表明:700hPa切变线、陇南低涡、西南急流和地面冷锋为此次暴雨的主要影响系统;水汽主要来源于700hPa;影响系统建立先于强对流云团发展3h以上;对流云团沿着700hPa切变线分布区域发展;暴雨时段始终维持强倾斜上升运动;暴雨区落区位于对流云团西侧θse值密集区附近,降水强度随着云顶亮温的降低而增强;700hPa暖湿气流沿850hPa冷垫爬升,冷暖交汇偏北,强降水发生在冷平流区。     

六盘水市东部一次秋季局地大暴雨诊断分析

该文利用常规观测资料、NCEP/NCAR 1°×1°再分析资料、高密度区域自动站降水资料以及地形因素等,对2012年9月12日发生在六盘水市六枝特区朗岱镇安乐村一次秋季大暴雨的天气影响系统、物理量场、动力因素等进行诊断分析。结果表明:此次局地大暴雨过程是在高空槽、中低层低涡切变和强盛的西南暖湿气流等天气条件有效合理配置下发生的;大暴雨发生时,位势能量500 hPa—850 hPaΔθse不稳定,对流高度高,对流强度和垂直上升运动增强。模式预报及高密度区域自动站降水资料对暴雨的量级和落区有很好的指导作用。     

陕北榆林市一次暴雨过程的诊断分析

利用FY-2C卫星tbb资料、常规资料以及NCEP 1°×1°的6h分析资料,对2006年9月20日夜陕西省榆林市的一次暴雨过程进行诊断分析。结果表明：700 hPa存在一支较强的偏南气流,该气流北伸的位置与暴雨的落区有关;tbb的最低值与暴雨中心对应较好;暴雨前期,850hPaθse场呈典型的“Ω”型;850hPa和700hPa的西南气流为暴雨提供了充足的水汽;强烈的上升运动触发不稳定能量释放,有利于强降水天气的发生发展;暴雨发生时,暴雨区基本位于或接近于螺旋度的大值区。     

2012年7月贵州西部一次局地暴雨诊断分析

利用常规观测资料、NCEP1°×1°再分析资料以及加密区域自动站降水资料,对2012年7月16日贵州西部局地暴雨天气过程的环境条件和动力条件进行诊断分析。结果表明:暴雨发生前,500 hPa层有高空槽东南移,700 hPa层有西南低涡沿切变线向南移动;大气层处于高能不稳定的状态下,水汽输送通道畅通,有充沛的水汽向暴雨区上空输送,有利于强降水的持续。在此次局地暴雨过程中,韭菜坪主峰(2 901 m)引导天气系统由其东侧向下游移动,同时贵州西部的水城东部与六枝西部之间为河谷地形,使水汽在此处积聚,有利于此处的上升运动增强;700 hPa上的西南低涡沿切变线移动是造成暴雨的直接系统。结合加密区域自动站降水资料分析,该中小尺度天气系统的演变对贵州西部局地强降水落区具有重要的指示意义。     

2011年7月29日山西大暴雨过程的多尺度特征

利用1°×1°的NCEP再分析资料、红外辐射亮温（TBB）、多普勒雷达和气柱水汽总量等资料,对2011年7月28-29日发生在山西境内的区域性暴雨进行多尺度特征分析。结果表明：（1）乌拉尔山阻高崩溃,西风槽东移、副高进退是此次暴雨发生的环流特征;（2）850 hPa低涡切变和700 hPa暖式切变线及地面冷锋是暴雨发生的中α尺度触发系统;（3）〉30 dBZ的雷达回波呈南北向位于地面冷锋与700 hPa切变线之间,雷达回波随地面冷锋和700 hPa切变线的东移而东移;（4）低空低涡切变受500 hPa强盛西南气流的引导向东北移动,暴雨落区始终与低涡切变相伴随;（5）暴雨过程山西境内共有9个中β尺度对流云团活动,山西西南部的暴雨主要由5个中β尺度对流云团的相继移入并在自动站极大风速风场切变线附近触发对流发展所致;山西东南部的大暴雨则是3个中β尺度对流云团合并发展的结果,中γ尺度气旋是导致局地大暴雨发生的直接影响系统;（6）暴雨发生在气柱水汽总量空间分布图中水汽锋的南部和东部及靠近气柱水汽总量的大值区一侧,水汽锋的形成比降水开始提前17 h,比暴雨发生提前24 h以上,对暴雨的短期、短时预报有指示意义。     

副高边缘西安地区一次短时暴雨分析

应用常规观测资料、卫星资料、西安雷达资料和NCEP 1°×1°逐6h再分析资料对2016年7月24日发生在西安的一次暴雨天气过程的特征和成因进行分析。结果表明:此次暴雨过程是在东移短波槽、副热带高压和低层切变共同作用下产生;强降水与对流云团活动密切相关,造成西安地区短时暴雨的β中尺度对流云团具有初生强度大、发生发展迅速等特点;暴雨区水汽通量辐合高值区的形成为暴雨的发生提供了有利的水汽聚积条件;暴雨发生前暴雨区低层暖湿条件增强;暴雨发生前和发生时大气层结维持对流不稳定状态;切变东侧上升气流发展,触发不稳定能量释放,为暴雨的发展提供了有利条件。     

"2009.6.3"广东强降水过程分析

利用常规观测资料、数值预报、NCF.P1°*1°再分析资料、物理诊断量、卫星云图、雷达回波、地面自动站等资料,分析了2009年6月3日(以下简称"6.3")广东暴雨级强降水过程的特征,并探讨了此次暴雨级强降水的成因及落区.结果表明:此次天气过程是在高空槽、中层切变和地面低压槽共同配合下产生的;西北部暴雨发生在850hPa切变线南侧的风速辐合区,中部及粤东的暴雨与500hPa高空槽的移动有很好的对应关系.分析还发现:以大尺度天气为背景,充分分析数值预报可以大概确定强降水强度及落区,再仔细分析卫星云图、雷达回波、自动站等资料可以基本确定强降水发生、发展及结束时间.     

2010年江西两次冬季暴雨过程分析

该文利用自动气象站逐小时雨量资料、常规气象观测资料以及NCEP每6 h 1次1°×l°全球再分析资料分析了2010年12月12日(简称过程1)和15日(简称过程2)江西2次不同类型的大范围冬季暴雨过程。结果表明,两次不同类型的冬季暴雨过程都发生在"拉尼娜"的气候背景下,高空急流右侧的强辐散区与中低层强西南气流中风速辐合区耦合下形成。与汛期暴雨过程相比,涡度、散度量值与汛期暴雨大小相近,垂直速度较小;850 hPa比湿值仅为汛期值的一半,低层水汽条件差,但整层水汽输送与汛期暴雨相近;大部分处于对流稳定状态,降水持续时间长,无中尺度雨团。冬季暴雨在动力、水汽条件方面700 hPa比850 hPa表现明显,暴雨落区与700 hPa水汽辐合一致。     

南疆西部“5·21”极端大暴雨成因分析

利用常规观测资料、区域自动站加密观测资料、NCEP/NCAR逐6 h 1°×1°的再分析资料和FY-2卫星逐时云顶亮温资料,分析2018年5月21日南疆西部极端大暴雨过程的成因。结果表明:100 hPa南亚高压双体型、500 h Pa塔什干低涡与贝加尔湖附近低槽"东西夹攻"、低空偏东急流强,为此次大暴雨提供了有利的高低空天气系统配置。副热带西风急流与极锋急流形成的高空强辐散区,在大暴雨区上空与低空偏东风急流左前方强烈的气旋式辐合区叠加,有利于上升运动维持;大暴雨发生前4 h,2个垂直环流圈的上升气流在暴雨区中心上空汇合,使得上升运动进一步增强。极端大暴雨发生前南疆西部整层大气湿润,低层偏西气流与偏东急流在暴雨区中心附近形成强烈辐合,促进了南疆盆地水汽向暴雨区集中和汇聚,同时有利于地面中尺度系统的发展和加强。卫星云图上多个γ中尺度MCS的活动造成本次极端大暴雨,强降水发生在TBB梯度最大的区域,极端大暴雨开始前3 h TBB下降超过30℃,与我国中东部地区局地暴雨发生前TBB的变化特征相似。     

Gaseous and Particulate Oxidized and Reduced Nitrogen Species in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer in Scandinavia in Spring

Observations of the concentration of several nitrogen containing compounds at five rural Scandinavian sites during March–June 1993 are reported. Total nitrate (NO ₃ ^- + HNO₃) and total ammonium (NH ₄ ⁺ + NH₃) were measured by denuder and filter pack. In general the methods agree well. At all sites the particulate fraction dominated, with the largest fraction of NO ₃ ^- and the lowest of NH ₄ ⁺ at the sites which were closest to the emission sources. The fraction of NO ₃ ^- of total nitrate increased with increasing NO₂ concentrations, indicating that the nighttime conversion of NO₂ to NO ₃ ^- is an important route of formation for NO ₃ ^- . A positive correlation was found between HNO₃ and O₃ in June at all sites, while no correlation was found early in the spring. Model calculations were made with a lagrangian boundary layer photooxidant model for the whole period, and compared to the measured concentrations. The calculated ratio between mean observed and modelled daily maximum concentrations of ozone over the measurement period were within +/–10% at all sites. The models ability to describe the daily ozone maximum concentration was satisfactory with an average deviation of 19–22% from the observed concentrations. HNO₃ was underestimated by over 50% at all sites except the one closest to the emission sources. The correlation between modelled and observed concentrations was generally best for the sites with shortest transport distance from the sources of emission.     

Changing patterns in rainfall extremes in South Australia

Theoretical and Applied Climatology - Daily rainfall records from seven stations in South Australia, with record lengths from 50 to 137 years and a common period of 36 years, are...     

Historical Trend in River Ice Thickness and Coherence in Hydroclimatological Trends in Maine

We analyzed long-term records of ice thickness on the Piscataquis River in central Maine and air temperature in Maine to determine whether there were temporal trends that were associated with climate warming. The trend in ice thickness was compared and correlated with regional time series of winter air temperature, heating degree days (HDD), date of river ice-out, seasonal center-of-volume date (SCVD) (date on which half of the stream runoff volume during the period 1 Jan. to 31 May has occurred), water temperature, and lake ice-out date. All of these variables except lake ice-out date showed significant temporal trends during the 20th century. Average ice thickness around 28 February decreased by about 23 cm from 1912 to 2001. Over the period 1900 to 1999, winter air temperature increased by 1.7 °C and HDD decreased by about 7.5%.Final ice-out date on the Piscataquis River occurred earlier (advanced), by 0.21 days yr^–1 over the period 1931 to 2002, and the SCVD advancedby 0.11 days yr^–1 over the period 1903 to 2001. Ice thickness was significantly correlated (P-value <0.01) with winter air temperature, HDD, river ice-out, and SCVD. These systematic temporal trends in multiple hydrologic indicator variables indicate a coherent response to climate forcing.     

Characteristics of ionic components in precipitation in Kitakyushu City,Japan

Precipitation samples were collected by filtrating bulk sampler in Kitakyushu City, Japan, from January 1988 to December 1990. Volume weighted annual mean of pH was 4.93, but the pH distribution indicated that most probable value lay in the range pH 6.0–6.4. Volume weighted annual mean concentrations of major ionic components were as follows; SO ₄ ^2– : 84.2, NO ₃ ^– : 28.1, Cl^–: 86.3, NH ₄ ⁺ : 45.5, Ca²⁺: 63.3, Mg²⁺: 27.0, K⁺: 3.4, Na⁺: 69.0 µ eq l^–1. The highest concentrations of these ionic components were observed in winter and the lowest occurred in the rainy season. The ratio of ex-SO ₄ ^2– /NO ₃ ^– exhibited the lowest ratio in summer, and the highest ratio in winter. Good correlations were obtained between Cl^– and Na⁺, ex-SO ₄ ²⁺ and ex-Ca²⁺, NO ₃ ^– and ex-Ca²⁺, and NH ₄ ⁺ and ex-SO ₄ ^2– , respectively. However, no correlation between Cl^– and Na⁺ with Ca²⁺ was observed. The relationship of H⁺ with (ex-SO ₄ ^2– + NO ₃ ^– ) - (ex-Ca²⁺ + NH ₄ ⁺ ) indicated positive correlation.     

Lateral coherence in isotropic turbulence and in the natural wind

A short review of experimental findings is given, followed by a theoretical derivation, based on Taylor's hypothesis, of formulas for lateral coherences. It is assumed that the flow is stationary and homogeneous. Explicit formulas are derived assuming an energy spectrum pertaining to the inertial subrange. Even when the last assumption is not fulfilled, there are only four different types of non-zero velocity coherences. These four coherences correspond to the combinations uu, vv, ww, and uv, where u, v, and w are the longitudinal, the transversal, and the vertical component of the turbulent velocity with respect to the direction of the horizontal mean wind velocity U. In the case of small displacements relative to the scale of turbulence, the coherences are shown to be universal functions of the non-dimensional frequency nD/¦U¦, where n is the frequency and D the lateral displacement. It is shown that these theoretical formulas for spectral coherences are in good agreement with atmospheric data. Finally, the role of the scale of the turbulence is discussed.     

Recent changes in dry spell and extreme rainfall events in Ethiopia

Summary This paper assesses recent changes in extremes of seasonal rainfall in Ethiopia based on daily rainfall data for 11 key stations over the period 1965–2002. The seasons considered are Kiremt (‘main rains’, June–September) and Belg (‘small rains’, February/March–May). The Mann-Kendall and linear regression trend tests show decreasing trends in the Kiremt and the Belg extreme intensity and maximum consecutive 5-day rains over eastern, southwestern and southern parts of Ethiopia whereas no trends are found in the remaining part of Ethiopia. In general, no trends are found in the yearly maximum length of Kiremt and Belg dry spells (days with rainfall below 1 mm) over Ethiopia.     

Desertification in Northern Sinai in the eighteenth century

Several natural and anthropogenic phenomena in the northern Sinai sand sea and the northern Negev desert were caused by desiccation of the area during most of the 17^th and the 18^th century. The dry phase had been preceded by a wet period. It appears that the combination of several wet decades followed by a long period of desiccation was the cause of desertification processes in the area which then triggered the destruction of vegetation.There is some congruity between the wet period and the period of maximum sunspot activity, known as theMedieval Maximum, while the desiccation of the area which followed coincided approximately with the period of minimum solar activity, known as theMaunder Minimum.     

Verdunstungsmessungen in El Salvador

Zusammenfassung Die Korrelation zwischen Verdunstungswerten verschiedener Meßanordnungen und klimatologischen Daten wird diskutiert, und es werden Näherungsformeln abgeleitet. Die Verdunstung folgt dem Sättigungsdefizit nach einer Exponentialfunktion mit einem Exponenten <1 für den Tank und >1 für das Piche-Rohr; ferner zeigt sich ein unterschiedliches Verhalten bei geringen und bei hohen Windgeschwindigkeiten.

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Summary Correlation of evaporation values from different instruments with climatological data are discussed and interpolation formulae are derived. Evaporation depends on saturation deficit according to a power law, power being <1 in the case of pan, and >1 for the Piche evaporimeter; different behaviour is observed for low and high wind speeds.

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Resumen Se discuta la correlación de la evaporación medida en diferentes instalaciones y de datos climatológicos y se derivan fórmulas de interpolación. La evaporación depende del déficit de saturación según una función exponential, con un exponente <1 para es Tanque y>1 para el Evaporímetro Piche; resulta además distinto comportamiento según la velocidad del viento.

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Résumé L'auteur discute les corrélations existant entre les valeurs de l'évaporation provenant de diverses installations de mesure d'une part, les données climatologiques d'autre part. Il en tire des formules de calcul approximatif. L'évaporation suit le déficit de saturation selon une fonction exponentielle. L'exposant est <1 pour un bassin, >1 pour l'évaporomètre de Piche. En outre, les valeurs ne sont pas identiques par vents forts ou faibles.

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Tests for individual Sulfate－Containing Particles in Urban Atmosphere in Beijing

Thin film methods and X ray energy dispersive technique were applied to analyze sulfate-containing particles in Beijing in order to examine their features and sources. Atmospheric aerosol particles were collected on electron mi-croscope meshes according to two size ranges: coarse particles (r>0.5μm) and fine particles (0.5μm≥r≥0.1μm) by using a two-stage impactor. It was found fiat more than seventy percent of the fine particles and about twenty percent of the coarse particles were sulfate-containing particles. These particles were formed mainly through heterogeneous nucleation. The element composition analyses revealed that the atmospheric aerosol particles in Beijing were domi-nated by crustal particles and construction dust.     

Projected Changes in Extreme High Temperature and Heat Stress in China

High temperature accompanied with high humidity may result in unbearable and oppressive weather. In this study, future changes of extreme high temperature and heat stress in mainland China are examined based on daily maximum temperature (T_x) and daily maximum wet-bulb globe temperature (T_w). T_w has integrated the effects of both temperature and humidity. Future climate projections are derived from the bias-corrected climate data of five general circulation models under the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 2.6 and 8.5 scenarios. Changes of hot days and heat waves in July and August in the future (particularly for 2020–50 and 2070–99), relative to the baseline period (1981–2010), are estimated and analyzed. The results show that the future T_x and T_w of entire China will increase by 1.5–5°C on average around 2085 under different RCPs. Future increases in T_x and T_w exhibit high spatial heterogeneity, ranging from 1.2 to 6°C across different regions and RCPs. By around 2085, the mean duration of heat waves will increase by 5 days per annum under RCP8.5. According to T_x, heat waves will mostly occur in Northwest and Southeast China, whereas based on T_w estimates, heat waves will mostly occur over Southeast China and the mean heat wave duration will be much longer than those from T_x. The total extreme hot days (T_x or T_w > 35°C) will increase by 10–30 days. Southeast China will experience the severest heat stress in the near future as extreme high temperature and heat waves will occur more often in this region, which is particularly true when heat waves are assessed based on T_w. In comparison to those purely temperature-based indices, the index T_w provides a new perspective for heat stress assessment in China.