CHARACTERISTICS OF VEGETATION COVER,ROUGHNESS AND ALBEDO DISTRIBUTION OVER CHINA

To build land surface dataset for climate model,with application of remote sensing techniqueas well as the Geographic Information System(GIS),the data of surface type,roughness andalbedo over China in 1997 were retrieved,resolutions being 10 km×10 km.Based on these data,an analysis is conducted on the geographic distributions and seasonal variations of surfacevegetation cover and roughness as well as albedo over China.Results show that surface vegetationcover is mainly located to the south of Yangtze River,in Southwest and Northeast China andsparse vegetation cover is in the Northwest.The variation of land surface cover affects thevariations of land surface roughness and albedo.High albedo occurred in the north of XinjiangAutonomous Region,the north of Northeast China and the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in winter,incorrespondence with the location of snow cover.For most part of China,surface roughness decreases and albedo increases in winter,while theroughness increases and the albedo decreases in summer,which could mainly result from landsurface cover(snow cover and vegetation cover)and soil moisture changes.This shows that thegeographic distribution and seasonal variation of the albedo are almost opposite to those of theroughness,in agreement with theoretical results.Temporally,the amplitude of surface roughnesschange is quite small in comparison with the roughness itself.     

Results of a CLM4 Land Surface Simulation over China Using a Multisource Integrated Land Cover Dataset

In this study, the high-accuracy multisource integrated Chinese land cover （MICLCover） dataset was used in version 4 of the Community Land Model （CLM4） to assess how the new land cover information affected land surface simulation over China. Compared to the default land cover dataset in CLM4, the MICL data indicated lower values for bare soil （14.6% reduction）, nee- dleleaf tree （3.6%）, and broadleaf tree （1.9%）; higher values for shrub cover （1.8% increase）, grassland （9.9%）, cropland （5.0%）, glaciers （0.5%）, lakes （1.6%）, and wetland （1.1%）; and unchanged for urban areas. Two comparative CLM4 simulations were conducted for the 33-yr period from 1972 to 2004, one using the MICL dataset and the other using the default dataset. The results revealed that the MICL data produced a 0.3% lower mean annual surface albedo over China than the original data. The largest contributor to the reduced value was semiarid regions （2.1% reduction）. The MICL-data albedo value agreed more closely with observations （MODIS broad- band black-sky albedo products） over arid and semiarid regions than for the original data to some extent. The simulated average sensible heat flux over China increased by only 0.1 W m 2 owing to the reduced values in arid and semiarid regions, as opposed to increases in humid and semihumid regions, while an increased latent heat flux of I W m-2 was reflected in almost identical changes over the whole region. In addition, the mean annual runoff simulated by CLM4 using MICL data decreased by 6.8 mm yr-1, primarily due to large simulated decreases in humid regions.     

The Relative Impact of Regional Scale Land Cover Change and Increasing CO2 over China

A series of 17-yr equilibrium simulations using the NCAR CCM3 (T42 resolution) were performed to investigate the regional scale impacts of land cover change and increasing CO2 over China. Simulations with natural and current land cover at CO2 levels of 280,355, 430, and 505 ppmv were conducted. Results show statistically significant changes in major climate fields (e.g. temperature and surface wind speed) on a 15-yr average following land cover change. We also found increases in the maximum temperature and in the diurnal temperature range due to land cover change. Increases in CO2 affect both the maximum and minimum temperature so that changes in the diurnal range are small. Both land cover change and CO2 change also impact the frequency distribution of precipitation with increasing CO2 tending to lead to more intense precipitation and land cover change leading to less intense precipitation-indeed, the impact of land cover change typically had the opposite effect versus the impacts of CO2. Our results provide support for the inclusion of future land cover change scenarios in long-term transitory climate inodelling experiments of the 21st Century. Our results also support the inclusion of land surface models that can represent future land cover changes resulting from an ecological response to natural climate variability or increasing CO2. Overall, we show that land cover change can have a significant impact on the regional scale climate of China, and that regionally, this impact is of a similar magnitude to increases in CO2 of up to about 430 ppmv. This means that that the impact of land cover change must be accounted for in detection and attribution studies over China.     

A 10-Yr Global Land Surface Reanalysis Interim Dataset(CRA-Interim/Land):Implementation and Preliminary Evaluation

A land surface reanalysis dataset covering the most recent decades is able to provide temporally consistent initial conditions for weather and climate models, and thus is crucial to verifying/improving numerical weather/climate forecasts/predictions. In this paper, we report the development of a 10-yr China Meteorological Administration(CMA) global Land surface ReAnalysis Interim dataset(CRA-Interim/Land; 2007–2016, 6-h intervals, approximately 34-km horizontal resolution). The dataset was produced and evaluated by using the Global Land Data Assimilation System(GLDAS) and NCEP Climate Forecast System Reanalysis(CFSR) global land surface reanalysis datasets, as well as in situ observations in China. The results show that the global spatial patterns and monthly variations of the CRA-Interim/Land, GLDAS, and CFSR climatology are highly consistent, while the soil moisture and temperature values of the CRA-Interim/Land dataset are in between those of the GLDAS and CFSR datasets. Compared with ground observations in China, CRA-Interim/Land soil moisture is comparable to or better than that of GLDAS and CFSR datasets for the 0–10-cm soil layer and has higher correlations and slightly lower root mean square errors(RMSE) for the 10–40-cm soil layer. However, CRA-Interim/Land shows negative biases in 10–40-cm soil moisture in Northeast China and north of central China. For ground temperature and the soil temperature in different layers,CRA-Interim/Land behaves better than the CFSR, especially in East and central China. CRA-Interim/Land has added value over the land components of CRA-Interim due to the introduction of global precipitation observations and improved soil/vegetation parameters. Therefore, this dataset is potentially a critical supplement to the CRA-Interim.Further evaluation of the CRA-Interim/Land, assimilation of near-surface atmospheric forcing variables, and extension of the current dataset to 40 yr(1979–2018) are in progress.     

Mapping near-surface air temperature,pressure, relative humidity and wind speed over Mainland China with high spatiotemporal resolution

As part of a joint effort to construct an atmospheric forcing dataset for mainland China with high spatiotemporal reso- lution, a new approach is proposed to construct gridded near-surface temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and surface pressure with a resolution of 1 km× 1 km. The approach comprises two steps： （1） fit a partial thin-plate smoothing spline with orography and reanalysis data as explanatory variables to ground-based observations for estimating a trend surface; （2） apply a simple kriging procedure to the residual for trend surface correction. The proposed approach is applied to observations collected at approximately 700 stations over mainland China. The generated forcing fields are compared with the corresponding components of the National Centers for Environmental Predic- tion （NCEP） Climate Forecast System Reanalysis dataset and the Princeton meteorological forcing dataset. The comparison shows that, both within the station network and within the resolutions of the two gridded datasets, the interpolation errors of the proposed approach are markedly smaller than the two gridded datasets.     

Effects of Heterogeneous Vegetation on the Surface Hydrological Cycle

Using the three-layer variable infiltration capacity (VIC-3L) hydrological model and the successive interpolation approach (SIA) of climate factors, the authors studied the effect of different land cover types on the surface hydrological cycle. Daily climate data from 1992 to 2001 and remotely-sensed leaf area index (LAI) are used in the model. The model is applied to the Baohe River basin, a subbasin of the Yangtze River basin, China, with an area of 2500 km2. The vegetation cover types in the Baohe River basin consist mostly of the mixed forest type (85%). Comparison of the modeled results with the observed discharge data suggests that: (1) Daily discharges over the period of 1992–2001 simulated with inputs of remotely-sensed land cover data and LAI data can generally produce observed discharge variations, and the modeled annual total discharge agrees with observations with a mean difference of 1.4%. The use of remote sensing images also makes the modeled spatial distributions of evapotranspiration physically meaningful. (2) The relative computing error (RCE) of the annual average discharge is ?24.8% when the homogeneous broadleaf deciduous forestry cover is assumed for the watershed. The error is 21.8% when a homogeneous cropland cover is assumed and ?14.32% when an REDC (Resource and Environment Database of China) land cover map is used. The error is reduced to 1.4% when a remotely-sensed land cover at 1000-m resolution is used.     

The Relative Impact of Regional Scale Land Cover Change and Increasing CO_2 over China

A series of 17-yr equilibrium simulations using the NCAR CCM3 (T42 resolution) were performed to investigate the regional scale impacts of land cover change and increasing CO2 over China. Simulations with natural and current land cover at CO2 levels of 280, 355, 430, and 505 ppmv were conducted. Results show statistically significant changes in major climate fields (e.g. temperature and surface wind speed) on a 15-yr average following     

Elucidating Dominant Factors Affecting Land Surface Hydrological Simulations of the Community Land Model over China

In order to compare the impacts of the choice of land surface model(LSM) parameterization schemes, meteorological forcing, and land surface parameters on land surface hydrological simulations, and explore to what extent the quality can be improved, a series of experiments with different LSMs, forcing datasets, and parameter datasets concerning soil texture and land cover were conducted. Six simulations are run for the Chinese mainland on 0.1° × 0.1° grids from 1979 to 2008, and the simulated mon...     

MODEL STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF SOIL NO EMISSIONS ON SURFACE OZONE*

The effect of soil NO emissions on surface ozone in autumn in East China has been studied by using TCTM(Troposphere Chemical Transport Model)with the input of meteorological variables from RAMS.The chemical mechanism for ozone variation caused by soil emissions has also been investigated.The model results reveal that soil NO emissions are important to regional ozone formation and distribution and the effect of soil NO emissions shows spatial inhomogeneity.Ozone over most areas in northern China decreases with maximum average decrement reaching 5 ppb while it increases over most areas of central and southern China with maximum average increment reaching 7 ppb caused by soil NO emissions.This situation of ozone variation is mainly determined by nonlinear photochemical mechanism.For the low NOx areas(≤3 ppb),ozone increases as NOx increases;for the high NOx areas(>3 ppb),ozone decreases as NOx increases.The effect of soil NO emissions on ozone depends on the transition value and NOx concentrations.     

Water Resources of the South Asian Region in a Warmer Atmosphere

The global mean surface temperature may rise by about 0.3oC per decade during the next Few decades as a result of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in the earth’s atmosphere. The data generated in the greenhouse warming simulations (Business-as-Usual scenario of IPCC) with the climate models developed at Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg have been used to assess future plausible hydrological scenario for the South Asian region. The model results indicate enhanced surface warming (2.7oC for summer and 3.6oC for winter) over the land regions of South Asia during the next hundred years. While there is no significant change in the precipitation over most of the land regions during winter, substantial increase in precipitation is likely to occur during summer. As a result, an increase in soil moisture is likely over central India, Bangladesh and South China during summer but a statistically sig-nificant decline in soil moisture is expected over central China in winter. A moderate decrease in surface runoff may occur over large areas of central China during winter while the flood prone areas of NE-India. Bangladesh and South China are likely to have an increase in surface runoff during summer by the end of next century.     

Impact of refined land surface properties on the simulation of a heavy convective rainfall process in the Pearl River Delta region,China

The location and occurrence time of convective rainfalls have attracted great public concern as they can lead to terrible disasters. However, the simulation results of convective rainfalls in the Pearl River Delta region often show significant discrepancies from the observations. One of the major causes lies in the inaccurate geographic distribution of land surface properties used in the model simulation of the heavy precipitation. In this study, we replaced the default soil and vegetation datasets of Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model with two refined datasets, i.e. the GlobCover 2009 (GLC2009) land cover map and the Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSD) soil texture, to investigate the impact of vegetation and soil on the rainfall patterns. The result showed that the simulation patterns of convective rainfalls obtained from the coupled refined datasets are more consistent with the observations than those obtained from the default ones. By using the coupled refined land surface datasets, the overlap ratio of high precipitation districts reached 36.3% with a variance of 28.5 km from the observed maximum rainfall position, while those of the default United States Geological Survey (USGS) dataset and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) dataset are 17.0%/32.8 km and 24.9%/49.0 km, respectively. The simulated total rainfall amount and occurrence time using the coupled refined datasets are the closest to the observed peak values. In addition, the HWSD soil data has improved the accuracy of the simulated precipitation amount, and the GLC2009 land cover data also did better in catching the early peak time.     

西太平洋地区大气边界层内臭氧的季节变化及其影响因子分析

利用臭氧探空资料,分析了西太平洋地区香港(Hong Kong)、那霸(Naha)和札幌(Sapporo)三个站点2000~2010年期间大气边界层内臭氧(O₃)的季节分布和年变化趋势。结果表明,三个站点O₃的季节分布存在明显的差异。其中,那霸和香港大气边界层内O₃季节平均呈双峰值分布,其峰值分别出现在春季和秋季;而札幌站为单峰分布,峰值出现在春季。造成季节分布差异的主要原因包括人为污染源和自然因素如气象条件。另外,三个站点大气边界层内O₃均呈上升趋势。其中札幌、那霸上升最快,分别达0.80 ppb a-1和0.77 ppb a-1。(ppb表示10-9,下同)香港的年际增长较不明显,但秋季增长却非常明显,高达1.21 ppb a-1。结合GOME (Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment) 和SCIAMACHY (Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectro Meter for Atmospheric Chartography)卫星反演的NO₂数据发现,过去10年中国京津唐和东北地区的对流层内NO₂柱总量增加极为迅速。这些O₃前体物通过远距离输送是导致札幌、那霸O₃浓度增加的主要原因之一。珠江三角洲人为污染源的增加及偏北气流的影响,是导致香港地区秋季O₃增加的主要原因。     

陆面过程模式BCC_AVIM中地表覆盖数据现状

地表覆盖是陆面和气候模式中的一个重要基础数据。以陆面过程模式BCC_AVIM为例,介绍模式中的地表覆盖数据变量、数据分辨率、不同类型数据的来源,重点比较分类方法差异巨大且类型众多的植被覆盖。综述比较了国际和国内常用的几套全球地表覆盖数据的来源、分类系统和分类方法以及空间分辨率,根据陆面过程模式的地表覆盖数据需求,确定不同全球土地覆盖数据在模式中的应用方法,讨论分析了全球地表覆盖产品在模式应用中存在的差距,提出不同遥感数据产品之间一致性较差的可能解决方案,探讨遥感数据产品在模式中应用的可能方式,以期更好地发挥全球地表覆盖数据产品的作用。     

不同分辨率CCSM4对东亚和中国气候模拟能力分析

本文利用通用气候系统模式CCSM4在三种水平分辨率下的工业化革命前期气候模拟试验,结合观测和再分析资料,比较了各分辨率下模式对中国温度和降水、东亚海平面气压和850 hPa风场的模拟能力,综合评价了模式分辨率对东亚和中国气候模拟的影响.结果表明,三种分辨率对中国温度均具有很好的模拟能力,除春季外,低分辨率(T31,约3.75°×3.75°)对全年温度的模拟能力均要稍好于中(f19,约1.9°×2.5°)、高(f09,约0.9°×1.25°)分辨率;各分辨率对中国降水的模拟能力远不如温度,除冬季外全年都出现的中部地区虚假降水并未因为模式分辨率提高而得到本质改善;对于东亚海平面气压场,低分辨率在冬季模拟能力相对最好,中等分辨率在夏季相对较好,而高分辨率的模拟能力均表现最差;低分辨率对850 hPa东亚冬季风和夏季风的模拟能力均要好于中、高分辨率,而两种较高分辨率的模拟能力则比较接近.总的来说,低分辨率CCSM4在东亚和中国气候模拟中表现出了较大优势,加之其计算代价小,适合进行需要较长时间积分的气候模拟研究.     

Recent progress in studies on land cover change and its regional climatic effects over China during historical times

The recent progresses on the reconstruction of historical land cover and the studies on regional climatic effects to temperature,precipitation,and the East Asian Monsoon across China were reviewed.Findings show that the land cover in China has been significantly modified by human activities over the last several thousands years,mainly through cropland expansion and forest clearance.The cropland over traditional Chinese agricultural areas increased from 5.32×105 km2 in the mid-17th century to 8.27×105 km2 in...     

CHARACTERISTICS OF VEGETATION COVER, ROUGHNESS AND ALBEDO DISTRIBUTION OVER CHINA*

To build land surface dataset for climate model,with application of remote sensing technique as well as the Geographic Information System(GIS),the data of surface type,roughness and albedo over China in 1997 were retrieved,resolutions being 10 km×10 km.Based on these data,an analysis is conducted on the geographic distributions and seasonal variations of surface vegetation cover and roughness as well as albedo over China.Results show that surface vegetation cover is mainly located to the south of Yangtze River,in Southwest and Northeast China andsparse vegetation cover is in the Northwest.The variation of land surface cover affects the variations of land surface roughness and albedo.High albedo occurred in the north of Xinjiang Autonomous Region,the north of Northeast China and the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in winter,in correspondence with the location of snow cover.For most part of China,surface roughness decreases and albedo increases in winter,while the roughness increases and the albedo decreases in summer,which could mainly result from land surface cover(snow cover and vegetation cover)and soil moisture changes.This shows that the geographic distribution and seasonal variation of the albedo are almost opposite to those of the roughness,in agreement with theoretical results.Temporally,the amplitude of surface roughness change is quite small in comparison with the roughness itself.     

Numerical simulation of the impact of land cover change on regional climate in China

Land use and land cover change (LUCC) can modify the physical and thermodynamic characteristics of the land surface, including surface roughness, albedo, and vegetation fraction, among others. These direct changes can result in a series of impacts on regional climate. In this paper, the simulated results over China under the scenario of LUCC using weather research and forecasting model are presented. The period for the simulation is from December 2006 to December 2011. Two experiments are initialized by the LUCC datasets derived from the MODIS data of 2001 and 2008, respectively. The results show that the LUCC in most areas of China reduces the surface albedo and increases the surface temperature. Especially in the Hetao Plain, the magnitude of increased surface temperature is above 0.5 °C in winter, and the increase in winter is more obvious than in summer. The precipitation in the Hetao Plain increases. The sensible heat in most parts of East China is reduced, while the latent heat is increased in most areas of China.     

A 10-Yr Global Land Surface Reanalysis Interim Dataset (CRA-Interim/Land): Implementation and Preliminary Evaluation

A land surface reanalysis dataset covering the most recent decades is able to provide temporally consistent initial conditions for weather and climate models, and thus is crucial to verifying/improving numerical weather/climate forecasts/predictions. In this paper, we report the development of a 10-yr China Meteorological Administration (CMA) global Land surface ReAnalysis Interim dataset (CRA-Interim/Land; 2007–2016, 6-h intervals, approximately 34-km horizontal resolution). The dataset was produced and evaluated by using the Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) and NCEP Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR) global land surface reanalysis datasets, as well as in situ observations in China. The results show that the global spatial patterns and monthly variations of the CRA-Interim/Land, GLDAS, and CFSR climatology are highly consistent, while the soil moisture and temperature values of the CRA-Interim/Land dataset are in between those of the GLDAS and CFSR datasets. Compared with ground observations in China, CRA-Interim/Land soil moisture is comparable to or better than that of GLDAS and CFSR datasets for the 0-10-cm soil layer and has higher correlations and slightly lower root mean square errors (RMSE) for the 10-40-cm soil layer. However, CRA-Interim/Land shows negative biases in 10-40-cm soil moisture in Northeast China and north of central China. For ground temperature and the soil temperature in different layers, CRA-Interim/Land behaves better than the CFSR, especially in East and central China. CRA-Interim/Land has added value over the land components of CRA-Interim due to the introduction of global precipitation observations and improved soil/vegetation parameters. Therefore, this dataset is potentially a critical supplement to the CRA-Interim. Further evaluation of the CRA-Interim/Land, assimilation of near-surface atmospheric forcing variables, and extension of the current dataset to 40 yr (1979–2018) are in progress.     

复杂地形区陆面资料对WRF模式模拟性能的影响

本文利用WRF（Weather Research and Forecasting）模式耦合Noah陆面过程模式,对比研究了使用不同精度陆面资料:WRF默认陆面资料、中国1 km分辨率数字高程模型数据集、2006年MODIS（MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer）土地利用和植被覆盖度资料,WRF模式对兰州地区冬季气象场模拟结果的差异。结果表明,近地面气温对陆面资料的精度非常敏感,而风场对陆面资料的精度不敏感,WRF模式对气温的模拟效果好于对风场模拟。采用高精度且时效性好的陆面资料后,WRF模拟的近地面气温准确率提高了15.8%,模拟的夜间气温改进幅度较白天大。陆面资料可影响整个边界层温度场分布,准确的陆面资料对提高WRF模式模拟近地面乃至整个边界层气象场至关重要。尽管风速模拟误差较大,但总体上WRF模式能较准确地模拟出研究区的风场演变特征。使用新的陆面资料后WRF模拟的风速误差略有减小,风向误差略有增加。干旱半干旱区冬季数值模拟需要注意土壤湿度初值和模式初始积分时刻对模拟结果的影响。