利用AVHRR资料推算青藏高原地区地表反射率的方法

目前NOAA系列卫星提供的AVHRR资料有很高的空间分辨率(～1km),是用来推算地表反射率的理想资料。本文首先叙述了青藏高原地区地表反射率的地面观测的一些事实,然后讨论了利用AVHRR资料推算地表反射率的原理与方法,并应用这一方法计算和分析了青藏高原地区1983年7月13日与1984年8月22日的两次观测资料。分析结果表明,青藏高原地区由于下垫面的复杂性,地表反射率的空间变化十分强烈;从区域平均来看,以往对高原大部份地区地表反射率的估计一般偏高。     

我国地表反射率的气候计算及其时空分布特征

本文在讨论日射站反射率资料应用和统计方法的基础上,利用全国日射站实测资料分析了地表反射率的影响因子及其时空变化特征,分别建立了地表反射率与积雪日数和气温的经验公式。还参考全国土壤和植被分布图,绘制并讨论了我国各季地表反射率分布图。     

三维城市地表反射率计算模式

地表反射率是控制地表能量平衡的一个重要参数。城市建筑物的分布具有较大的不均一性,这不仅给地基观测城市地表反射率带来了很大困难,数值模拟城市地表反射率也是非常困难的。作者开发了一个三维城市地表反射率模式city_photo,该方法结合了蒙特卡洛方法和几何光学方法的优点,具有较高的精度和较快的计算速度。通过引入城市地图的概念,该模式能够计算具有不同结构的城市的地表反射率。2002至2004年晴空MODIS（MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer,中分辨率成像光谱辐射计）1~7通道可见光和近红外通道地表反射率资料被用来检验模式的有效性,位于北京朝阳区的中国科学院大气物理研究所的AERONET站点观测得到气溶胶光学特性和水汽资料,6S（Second Simulation of Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum）大气辐射传输模式被用来对其进行大气订正。模式计算的北京城市地表反射率个例与MODIS 7个通道地表反射率观测结果具有很高的相关性,相关系数在0.80~0.93之间,说明模式能够较好地模拟城市地表反射率随太阳和观测角度的变化情况。最后讨论了城市结构对城市地表反射率的影响。     

青藏高原地区地表及行星反射率

文章讨论了利用ISCCP卫星观测资料确定青藏高原地区地表反射率的方法，在无积雪地区和季节，地表反射率可以ISCCP可见光反射率为基础，在模式计算过程中，假定紫外反射率以及红外与可见光反射率的比值分别为常数。敏感性试验表明，由这两个假设所产生的误差并不显著。在有积雪地区或季节，地表平均反射率可直接由ISCCP可见光反射率表示。试验结果与地面实际观测作了比较，除沙漠区外，两者比较一致。文中还计算了高原晴天行星反射率。经与ERBE卫星观测比较，发现从5月至9月高原周围沙漠区气溶胶对辐射平衡有较显著的影响。而在其     

金塔绿洲地表特征参数遥感反演研究

TM影像是陆地资源卫星（Landsat）携带的专题绘图仪（Thematic Mapper,TM）扫描计获取的遥感图像,近年来,该数据得到了广泛的应用。本文使用Landsat-5TM数据推算了金塔地区的地表参数,包括标准化差值植被指数NDVI、修正的土壤调整植被指数MSAVI、植被覆盖度、地表反射率及地表温度。并将地表反射率、地表温度的反演值与观测值进行对比,结果表明：地表温度反演结果的相对误差在9％以内,地表反射率反演结果的相对误差在8％以内。     

黑河实验区若干下垫面总辐射、地表反射率与太阳高度角的关系

本文利用1991年“黑河实验”期张掖，化音，沙漠站1月、4月、8月、10月太阳辐射观测资料，分析了晴天总辐射、地表反射率与太阳高度角的关系，得到了不同下垫面、不同季节的地表反射率与太阳高度角的函数关系及各站晴天总辐射与太阳高度角的函数关系的拟合公式，并讨论了这种关系在利用卫星观测资料反演地表反射率中的应用．     

晴天地表太阳辐射的参数化

讨论了晴天地表太阳总辐射和地表太阳净辐射瞬时值的参数化方法。首先利用辐射传输模式和中纬度夏季标准大气廓线,分谱带计算晴天各种大气条件下地表反射率取定值时的地表太阳总辐射,并把所得的结果作为标准资料,提出参数化方案。然后将地表反射率的影响作为误差项进行订正,从而得到各种地表反射率条件下的晴天地表太阳净辐射的计算方法。该方法的拟合精度较高,拟合值与辐射模式标准值的平均相对误差在0.3%以下。该参数化公式可以用于大尺度数值模式中地表辐射平衡的计算,以期达到地表辐射平衡计算与模式积分同步进行的目的。     

青藏高原地表反射率卫星反演资料的评估

该文重点介绍了ＩＳＣＣＰ资料中的地表可见光反射率资料及ＬｉＺｈａｎｑｉｎｇ等用参数化反演模式从ＥＲＢＥ宽带行星反射率得到的地表反射率资料。我们选择青藏高原及其邻近地区为目标区，结合高原野外地面观测资料对它们进行了比较和评估，分析了误差的可能原因，并提出了反演青藏高原地表反射率时注意的问题。     

卫星对地遥感应用中的邻近效应研究

利用Monte-Carlo地气耦合辐射传输模式比较系统地进行了卫星视反射率对地表、大气和卫星参数的敏感性数值试验,重点研究了邻近效应对地表反射水平非均一分布的敏感性、邻近效应有效地表范围以及邻近效应与卫星高度的关系三个方面的问题.在定量分析的基础上,揭示了影响邻近效应的主要因子及其影响机制,给出了一些重要结论,包括:地表非均一引起的邻近效应的影响是非常重要的,特别是当目标反射率小于环境反射率时;气溶胶光学厚度越大,散射相函数对称性越强,卫星视反射率对环境反射率越敏趑感,邻近效应越明显;邻近效应的有效地表范围可达到几十公里,同样光学厚度条件下,与气溶胶相比,分子的有效地表范围更大,邻近效应也更强;卫星观测同一目标物时,邻近效应随着探测器高度增高而变大等.     

单星多角度法同时反演气溶胶光学厚度和地表反射率

尝试以单星多角度卫星观测数据同时反演晴空陆地的气溶胶光学厚度和地表反射率,并选取2009年5月的MODIS(Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer)1B资料进行了反演试验.结果表明:单星多角度法反演得到的气溶胶光学厚度结果与MODIS气溶胶产品(MOD04)平均值的相关系数为0.7914;反演的地表反射率结果与MODIS地表反射率产品(MOD09)也具有较好的一致性.对直接利用单星多角度观测数据反演获得一段时间内平均的气溶胶光学厚度进行了有益的尝试.     

黑河实验区AVHRR反射率资料的各向异性订正

本文利用1988年9月黑河实验预试验期晴天AVHRR资料分析了实验区反射率观测值和植被指数对卫星观测角的依赖关系,讨论了应用Taylor和Stowe的各向异性订正函数对反射率观测值进行订正的效果及存在的问题。分析结果表明:Taylor和Stowe的订正函数的应用有较好的订正效果,但对高反射率的戈壁沙漠和低反射率的山地森林地区仍存在一定偏差。植被指数基本上不依赖于卫星观测角,但观测区处在星下点附近时测得的植被指数值要比远离星下点时大一些。     

Parameterization of snow-free land surface albedo as a function of vegetation phenology based on MODIS data and applied in climate modelling

The aim of this study was to develop an advanced parameterization of the snow-free land surface albedo for climate modelling describing the temporal variation of surface albedo as a function of vegetation phenology on a monthly time scale. To estimate the effect of vegetation phenology on snow-free land surface albedo, remotely sensed data products from the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the NASA Terra platform measured during 2001 to 2004 are used. The snow-free surface albedo variability is determined by the optical contrast between the vegetation canopy and the underlying soil surface. The MODIS products of the white-sky albedo for total shortwave broad bands and the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR) are analysed to separate the vegetation canopy albedo from the underlying soil albedo. Global maps of pure soil albedo and pure vegetation albedo are derived on a 0.5° regular latitude/longitude grid, re-sampling the high-resolution information from remote sensing-measured pixel level to the model grid scale and filling up gaps from the satellite data. These global maps show that in the northern and mid-latitudes soils are mostly darker than vegetation, whereas in the lower latitudes, especially in semi-deserts, soil albedo is mostly higher than vegetation albedo. The separated soil and vegetation albedo can be applied to compute the annual surface albedo cycle from monthly varying leaf area index. This parameterization is especially designed for the land surface scheme of the regional climate model REMO and the global climate model ECHAM5, but can easily be integrated into the land surface schemes of other regional and global climate models.     

利用遥感地表参数分析上海市的热岛效应及治理对策

从NOAA-AVHRR数据提取出晴空状况下上海市的地表反照率、地表温度和植被指数参数，分析了冬夏两季遥感地表参数所反映的热岛效应变化。发现在冬夏两季的白天和夜晚都存在明显的城市热岛效应，在冬季夜晚的热岛效应比白天强，而在夏季夜晚的热岛效应比白天弱。这是由于下垫面的差异，导致白天城区地表温度大大超过郊区。城区的地表反照率和植被指数始终小于郊区。进一步的相关分析表明，夏季城市的地表温度与植被指数、地表反照率存在显著的负相关，相关系数分别为-0．975、-0．712。通过提高植被覆盖率和地表反照率，可以减小城市热岛效应。     

An annual cycle of vegetation in a GCM. Part II: global impacts on climate and hydrology

The Met Office Hadley Centre Unified Model (HadAM3) with the tiled version of the Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme (MOSES2) land surface scheme is used to assess the impact of a comprehensive imposed vegetation annual cycle on global climate and hydrology. Two 25-year numerical experiments are completed: the first with structural vegetation characteristics (Leaf Area Index, LAI, canopy height, canopy water capacity, canopy heat capacity, albedo) held at annual mean values, the second with realistic seasonally varying vegetation characteristics. It is found that the seasonalities of latent heat flux and surface temperature are widely affected. The difference in latent heat flux between experiments is proportional to the difference in LAI. Summer growing season surface temperatures are between 1 and 4 K lower in the phenology experiment over a majority of grid points with a significant vegetation annual cycle. During winter, midlatitude surface temperatures are also cooler due to brighter surface albedo over low LAI surfaces whereas during the dry season in the tropics, characterized by dormant vegetation, surface temperatures are slightly warmer due to reduced transpiration. Precipitation is not as systematically affected as surface temperature by a vegetation annual cycle, but enhanced growing season precipitation rates are seen in regions where the latent heat flux (evaporation) difference is large. Differences between experiments in evapotranspiration, soil moisture storage, the timing of soil thaw, and canopy interception generate regional perturbations to surface and sub-surface runoff annual cycles in the model.     

2000~2016年青藏高原地表反照率时空分布及动态变化

应用MODIS地表反照率产品MCD43C3,结合青藏高原自然带数据、积雪覆盖率和植被指数数据,采用一元线性回归方法分析了2000~2016年青藏高原地表反照率的分布及变化特征,结果表明:1）高原地表反照率空间分布差异大,整体上东南部低、西北部高,受地形和地表覆盖影响较大。2）高原地表反照率四季的空间分布变化明显,高海拔山脉和高寒灌丛草甸是高原地表反照率年内和年际变化的敏感地区。3）高原地表反照率年变化介于0.19~0.26,一定程度上表现为“双峰单谷”型,与地表覆盖类型的季节变化密切相关。4）高原地表反照率年际变化整体呈缓慢波动减小的趋势,平均变率约为－0.4×10-3 a-1,减小的区域约占高原总面积的66%,川西 —藏东针叶林带的西南部地区减小得最快,减小速率超过1.0×10-2 a-1。5）高原地表反照率减小与冰川消融和积雪减少密切相关,高原植被覆盖改善也是一个重要因素。     

Comprehensive study on the influence of evapotranspiration and albedo on surface temperature related to changes in the leaf area index

Many studies have investigated the influence of evapotranspiration and albedo and emphasize their separate effects but ignore their interactive influences by changing vegetation status in large amplitudes. This paper focuses on the comprehensive influence of evapotranspiration and albedo on surface temperature by changing the leaf area index(LAI) between 30–90 N.Two LAI datasets with seasonally different amplitudes of vegetation change between 30–90N were used in the simulations.Seasonal differences between the results of the simulations are compared, and the major findings are as follows.(1) The interactive effects of evapotranspiration and albedo on surface temperature were different over different regions during three seasons [March–April–May(MAM), June–July–August(JJA), and September–October–November(SON)], i.e., they were always the same over the southeastern United States during these three seasons but were opposite over most regions between30–90 N during JJA.(2) Either evapotranspiration or albedo tended to be dominant over different areas and during different seasons. For example, evapotranspiration dominated almost all regions between 30–90N during JJA, whereas albedo played a dominant role over northwestern Eurasia during MAM and over central Eurasia during SON.(3) The response of evapotranspiration and albedo to an increase in LAI with different ranges showed different paces and signals. With relatively small amplitudes of increased LAI, the rate of the relative increase in evapotranspiration was quick, and positive changes happened in albedo. But both relative changes in evapotranspiration and albedo tended to be gentle, and the ratio of negative changes of albedo increased with relatively large increased amplitudes of LAI.     

An annual cycle of vegetation in a GCM. Part I: implementation and impact on evaporation

The sensitivity of evaporation to a prescribed vegetation annual cycle is examined globally in the Met Office Hadley Centre Unified Model (HadAM3) which incorporates the Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme (MOSES2) as the land surface scheme. A vegetation annual cycle for each plant functional type in each grid box is derived based on satellite estimates of Leaf Area Index (LAI) obtained from the nine-year International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project II dataset. The prescribed model vegetation seasonality consists of annual cycles of a number of structural vegetation characteristics including LAI as well as canopy height, surface roughness, canopy water capacity, and canopy heat capacity, which themselves are based on empirical relationships with LAI. An annual cycle of surface albedo, which in the model is a function of soil albedo, surface soil moisture, and LAI, is also modelled and agrees reasonably with observed estimates of the surface albedo annual cycle. Two 25-year numerical experiments are completed and compared: the first with vegetation characteristics held at annual mean values, the second with prescribed realistic seasonally varying vegetation. Initial analysis uncovered an unrealistically weak relationship between evaporation and vegetation state that is primarily due to the insensitivity of evapotranspiration to LAI. This weak relationship is strengthened by the adjustment of two MOSES2 parameters that together improve the models LAI-surface conductance relationship by comparison with observed and theoretical estimates. The extinction coefficient for photosynthetically active radiation, k _par , is adjusted downwards from 0.5 to 0.3, thereby enhancing the LAI-canopy conductance relationship. A canopy shading extinction coefficient, k _sh , that controls what fraction of the soil surface beneath a canopy is directly exposed to the overlying atmosphere is increased from 0.5 to 1.0, which effectively reduces soil evaporation under a dense canopy. When the experiments are repeated with the adjusted parameters, the relationship between evaporation and vegetation state is strengthened and is more spatially consistent. At nearly all locations, the annual cycle of evaporation is enhanced in the seasonally varying vegetation experiment. Evaporation is stronger during the peak of the growing season and, in the tropics, reduced transpiration during the dry season when LAI is small leads to significantly lower total evaporation.     

Numerical simulation of the impact of vegetation index on the interannual variation of summer precipitation in the Yellow River Basin

Two sets of numerical experiments using the coupled National Center for Environmental Prediction General Circulation Model （NCEP/GCM T42L18） and the Simplified Simple Biosphere land surface scheme （SSiB） were carried out to investigate the climate impacts of fractional vegetation cover （FVC） and leaf area index （LAI） on East Asia summer precipitation, especially in the Yellow River Basin （YRB）. One set employed prescribed FVC and LAI which have no interannual variations based on the climatology of vegetation distribution; the other with FVC and LAI derived from satellite observations of the International Satellite Land Surface Climate Project （ISLSCP） for 1987 and 1988. The simulations of the two experiments were compared to study the influence of FVC, LAI on summer precipitation interannual variation in the YRB. Compared with observations and the NCEP reanalysis data, the experiment that included both the effects of satellite-derived vegetation indexes and sea surface temperature （SST） produced better seasonal and interannual precipitation variations than the experiment with SST but no interannual variations in FVC and LAI, indicating that better representations of the vegetation index and its interannual variation may be important for climate prediction. The difference between 1987 and 1988 indicated that with the increase of FVC and LAI, especially around the YRB, surface albedo decreased, net surface radiation increased, and consequently local evaporation and precipitation intensified. Further more, surface sensible heat flux, surface temperature and its diurnal variation decreased around the YRB in response to more vegetation. The decrease of surface-emitting longwave radiation due to the cooler surface outweighed the decrease of surface solar radiation income with more cloud coverage, thus maintaining the positive anomaly of net surface radiation. Further study indicated that moisture flux variations associated with changes in the general circulation also contributed to the precipitation interannual variation.