2001～2002年云南雨季第一场大雨过程的数值模拟试验

用η坐标中尺度模式中对2001、2002年云南雨季开始强降雨过程进行模拟检验.模拟结果表明模式对云南第一场透雨具有预报能力.试验也说明,由于影响系统不同,模式预报的雨区在分布上有偏差,对初始场进行同化将提高模式对云南强降水天气的预报能力.     

初始场对MM5模拟黄淮气旋天气过程影响的数值试验

分别以NCEP和T213客观分析场作为MM5初始场,对3次黄淮气旋降水天气过程进行数值模拟,分析不同初始场的气旋移动路径、降水分布模拟结果,检验两种初始场对模式预报能力的影响。结果表明:MM5用两个初始场对36小时内黄淮气旋的移动路径和降水分布均有较高的预报能力,随着预报时效的增加预报能力下降,对气旋生成地点和路径明显转折的预报误差较大。用T213客观分析资料作为MM5初始场对气旋移动路径预报优于以NCEP客观分析资料为初始场,两个初始场对降水分布和量级的模拟结果基本相当,无明显差别。     

GPS观测资料应用于中尺度数值预报模式的初步研究

利用建立在长江三角洲地区GPS观测网中 11个站点的可降水量资料 ,对 2 0 0 2年 6月 2 3～ 2 4日影响长江三角洲地区的降水过程进行了MM5模式初始湿度场调整和Nudging同化试验。试验表明 :利用GPS测量的可降水量对模式初始湿度场进行调整能明显增强模式初始场描述水汽分布的能力 ,从而有效地控制模式积分初期对可降水量预报的误差 ,并对模式 6h累积降水量预报有较明显的改善作用。利用Nudging技术同化GPS可降水量资料对MM5预报效果改善较小 ,并且Nudging系数的增加对预报效果的影响不大。总体上 ,利用GPS可降水量资料调整模式初始湿度场对模式 6h累积降水预报效果的改善明显好于连续Nudging同化。试验还表明 :GPS资料对模式初始湿度场调整改善模式对累积降水量的预报主要是通过改善网格降水预报来实现的 ,而Nudging同化主要是通过改善次网格降水而提高模式降水预报能力的。     

全球大尺度信息在3 km GRAPES-RAFS系统中的应用

为了缓解快速分析预报循环过程中固定边界条件造成的预报锁定,缩短动力、热力调整时间,提高模式预报能力,全球模式产品的大尺度部分的信息被引入GRAPES-RAFS系统中,通过二维离散余弦变换方法对全球模式产品和区域分析进行谱分解,获得综合全球大尺度和区域中小尺度信息的混合尺度分析。通过2018年5月9日—6月9日1个月间歇分析预报循环,比较对照试验和混合尺度分析试验的冷启动和暖启动预报结果表明,在快速分析预报循环中,全球大尺度信息的加入不仅增加分析的大尺度部分信息和降低地面气压倾向,缩短模式预报的动力、热力调整时间,且地面要素场、分析场和降水的暖启动预报质量有显著提高;台风艾云尼路径预报也更加接近观测。另外,GRAPES-RAFS循环的暖启动与冷启动预报相比,初始场更加协调,但地面2 m气温和10 m风场的预报质量比冷启动预报差,且其ETS降水评分也明显低于冷启动预报。混合尺度方案在RAFS系统中的应用能有效提高初始场的协调性,地面、高空要素和降水预报质量得到提升。      

多普勒雷达资料对暴雨定量预报的同化对比试验

基于NCEP/NCAR再分析资料和连云港雷达探测资料,利用WRF模式及其三维变分同化V2.1系统,对发生在2008年4月19日连云港地区一次区域性暴雨过程进行了三维变分同化数值模拟对比研究.结果表明,同化了雷达资料后,模式预报效果比单独使用NCEP做初始场效果明显改善,暴雨落区和量值更接近实况.同化了雷达资料后,模式预报的垂直运动区、最大上升区、水汽输送通道和高空涡度分布等更接近强降水区,结构也更精细,说明初始场增加雷达资料后,对初始风场的结构、强度和初始云水分布有实质性的改进,从而提高了对暴雨定量预报的效果.     

初始场中尺度信息对暴雨预报的影响

由于观测资料分辨率与模式分辨率的不同,利用高分辨率模式对暴雨进行预报时,常规观测资料形成的初始场不能直接分辨出中尺度系统,这种中尺度系统特征的缺少可以认为是初始场的一种信息误差。利用中尺度天气分析的尺度分离方法可以提取这种中尺度信息。通过分析初始场中尺度信息的结构、演变特征及其对暴雨预报影响的机理,发现初始场中尺度信息的结构在主要雨带的对流敏感区具有明确的天气学意义,包含了有利暴雨产生的信息;其能量随时间也是增长的,特别是在积分12小时以后,能量迅速增长然后趋于稳定,超过了初始随机扰动的能量增长。利用减弱和增强初始场中中尺度信息的两种初始场作暴雨预报,其结果反映了初始场中尺度信息对暴雨预报的重要性,特别是对雨团位置和强度的预报,这些信息会直接影响暴雨的精细预报。     

卫星资料在模式初值中的初步应用研究

运用物理初值化方法,将气象卫星资料引入模式初始场,使初始场向观测场逼近,试图改进由于初始资料不完善而造成的模式积分前期降水量偏少的现象。应用ARPS中尺度模式对天津地区的一次强降水天气过程进行了数值模拟对比试验,结果表明,加入卫星观测资料后,部分卫星观测为对流云区,水汽和云水物质的水平和垂直分布进行了较为明显的调整,模式的临近短时降水预报也有明显增强的趋势。可判断出模式的初始状况更接近观测实际,对提高中小尺度天气系统的短期和临近预报的准确率有积极作用。     

P一σ全球模式的月尺度动力延伸预报试验

用P-σ混合坐标系原始方程模式(Nju-PσM),以观测的瞬时气象要素场作为模式初始场,作了24个月动力延伸预报试验.利用距平符号一致率(P)、距平相关系数(AC)和均方根误差(RMS)对预报结果进行了评估和分析.试验表明Nju-PσM对月平均环流有一定的预报能力,气候漂移订正和预报结果的线性、抛物线型两种合成方法都对预报效果有明显的改进.把动力延伸预报与年际和月际持续性预报进行对比后,表明动力预报结果的各项评估分均为最高.预报场和实况场的空间滤波和经验正交函数(EOF)分析表明,模式对大尺度天气系统的预报能力较强,而对较小尺度天气系统的预报能力则差一些.     

P-σ全球模式的月尺度动力延伸预报试验

用P－σ混合坐标系原始方程模式（Nju-PσM)，以观测的瞬时气象要素场作为模式初始场，作了24个月动力延伸预报试验，利用距平符号一致率（P）、距平相关系数（AC）和均方根误差（RMS）对预报结果进行了评估和分析。试验表明Nju-PσM对月平均环流有一定的预报能力，气候漂移证正和预报结果的线性、势力的线型两种合成方法都对预报效果有明显的改进，把动力延伸预报与年际和月际持续性预报进行对比后，表明动力预报结果的各项评估分均为最高。预报场和实况场的空间滤波和经验正交函数（EOF）分析表明，模式对大尺度天气系统的预报能力较强，而对较小尺度天气系统的预报能力则差一例。     

四维变分同化方法在暴雨预报中的应用

本文利用PSU/NCAR的MM5数值预报模式及其伴随模式,以我国1999年6月23日~6月24日的一次梅雨锋暴雨过程为个例,作了两组试验:控制试验和同化试验,并对两组试验的降水预报效果以及初始场进行对比分析,结果表明:四维变分资料同化方法可以将各种不同类型、不同时次的观测资料同化到模式中,将这些资料中有用的中尺度信息引入到模式初始场,有效改善初始场,从而提高暴雨预报水平。     

A REVIEW OF THE ANALYSIS OF MOISTURE VARIABLES AND THE APPLICATION IN NUMERICAL MODELS

The application of the explicit microphysical process in the high-resolution mesoscale numerical models makes it necessary to analyze the moisture variables such as the cloud water, cloud ice and rain water to initialize the explicit predicted fields. While the inclusion of moisture variables in initial fields can influence the whole performance of the model significantly, it can also reduce the spin-up time and increase the short-term forecasting ability of the model since the dynamical fields become more accordant with the thermodynamic fields. Now the increase of the observing ability and the abundance of the data promote the development of ways to analyze the moisture variables. A review of some methods to analyze the moisture variables is presented, and the situation and problems of the application in the numerical models are also discussed in this paper.     

Evaluating a Model of Evaporation and Transpiration with Observations in a Partially Wet Douglas-Fir Forest

The Penman–Monteith equation is extended to describe evaporation of intercepted rain, transpiration and the interaction between these processes in a single explicit function. This single-layer model simulates the effects of heat exchange, stomatal blocking and changed humidity deficit close to the canopy as a function of canopywater storage. Evaporation depends on the distribution of water over the canopy and the energy exchange between wet and dry parts. Transpiration depends on the dry canopy surface resistance that is described with a Jarvis-type response. The explicit functions obtained for water vapour fluxes facilitate a straightforward identificationof the various processes. Canopy water storage amounts and xylem sapflow were measured simultaneously during drying episodes after rainfall in a dense, partially wet, Douglas-fir forest. Estimates of evaporation and transpiration rates are derived from these observations. The analysis shows that evaporation induced transpirationreduction is mainly caused by energy consumption. Changes in water vapour deficit have a minor effect due to a compensating stomatal reaction. The remaining difference between observed and modelled transpiration reduction can be attributed to partial blocking of stomata by the water layer.     

显式云物理方案的研究进展

回顾了近年来显式云物理方案的研究进展。显式云方案主要有体积水方法和详细微物理方法(分档法)。体积水方法有单参数和双参数两种谱描述方法,根据模式预报变量和物理过程的不同,可以分为暖云方案、简单冰相方案和复杂冰相方案。详细的微物理方法由于预报变量繁多、计算量巨大而一般多应用于研究工作。不同的模式,有不同的显式云方案,并不是粒子分类越复杂模拟效果就越好,需要根据研究的重点、计算资源的许可选择使用不同的物理方案。物理过程参数化需要建立在理论和实验研究的基础上,因此应加强这方面的理论和实验研究,使物理参数化具有更坚实的物理基础。     

一个简化的混合相云降水显式方案

该文提出一个新的混合相云降水显式方案,它预报2个云物理量,即云水（冷区为过冷云水）和降水（冷区为冰雪,暖区为雨）,考虑了7种云物理过程。文中给出了详细的方程组,可以作为一个子程序供大、中尺度天气模式使用。该方案还与详细微物理显式方案和暖云方案作了实例模拟比较。     

Spatial patterns and trends of daily rainfall regime in Peninsular Malaysia during the southwest and northeast monsoons: 1975–2004

Model precipitation can be produced implicitly through convective parameterization schemes or explicitly through cloud microphysics schemes. These two precipitation production schemes control the spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation and consequently can yield distinct vertical profiles of heating and moistening in the atmosphere. The partition between implicit and explicit precipitation can be different as the model changes resolutions. Within the range of mesoscale resolutions (about 20 km) and cumulus scale, hybrid solutions are suggested, in which cumulus convection parameterization is acting together with the explicit form of representation. In this work, it is proposed that, as resolution increases, the convective scheme should convert less condensed water into precipitation. Part of the condensed water is made available to the cloud microphysics scheme and another part evaporates. At grid sizes smaller than 3 km, the convective scheme is still active in removing convective instability, but precipitation is produced by cloud microphysics. The Eta model version using KF cumulus parameterization was applied in this study. To evaluate the quantitative precipitation forecast, the Eta model with the KF scheme was used to simulate precipitation associated with the South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ) and Cold Front (CF) events. Integrations with increasing horizontal resolutions were carried out for up to 5 days for the SACZ cases and up to 2 days for the CF cases. The precipitation partition showed that most of precipitation was generated by the implicit scheme. As the grid size decreased, the implicit precipitation increased and the explicit decreased. However, as model horizontal resolution increases, it is expected that precipitation be represented more explicitly. In the KF scheme, the fraction of liquid water or ice, generated by the scheme, which is converted into rain or snow is controlled by a parameter S ₁. An additional parameter was introduced into KF scheme and the parameter acts to evaporate a fraction of liquid water or ice left in the model grid by S ₁ and return moisture to the resolved scale. An F parameter was introduced to combine the effects of S ₁ and S ₂ parameters. The F parameter gives a measure of the conversion of cloud liquid water or ice to convective precipitation. A function dependent on the horizontal resolution was introduced into the KF scheme to influence the implicit and explicit precipitation partition. The explicit precipitation increased with model resolution. This function reduced the positive precipitation bias at all thresholds and for the studied weather systems. With increased horizontal resolution, the maximum precipitation area was better positioned and the total precipitation became closer to observations. Skill scores for all events at different forecast ranges showed precipitation forecast improvement with the inclusion of the function F.     

THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT PHYSICAL PROCESSES AND THEIR PARAMETERIZATIONS ON FORECAST OF A HEAVY RAINFALL IN SOUTH CHINA IN ANNUALLY FIRST RAINING SEASON

An ensemble prediction system based on the GRAPES model, using multi-physics, is used to discuss the influence of different physical processes in numerical models on forecast of heavy rainfall in South China in the annually first raining season(AFRS). Pattern, magnitude and area of precipitation, evolution of synoptic situation, as well as apparent heat source and apparent moisture sink between different ensemble members are comparatively analyzed. The choice of parameterization scheme for land-surface processes gives rise to the largest influence on the precipitation prediction. The influences of cumulus-convection and cloud-microphysics processes are mainly focused on heavy rainfall;the use of cumulus-convection parameterization tends to produce large-area and light rainfall. Change in parameterization schemes for land-surface and cumulus-convection processes both will cause prominent change in forecast of both dynamic and thermodynamic variables, while change in cloud-microphysics processes show primary impact on dynamic variables. Comparing simplified Arakawa-Schubert and Kain-Fritsch with Betts-Miller-Janjic schemes, SLAB with NOAH schemes, as well as both WRF single moment 6-class and NCEP 3-class with simplified explicit schemes of phase-mixed cloud and precipitation shows that the former predicts stronger low-level jets and high humidity concentration, more convective rainfall and local heavy rainfall, and have better performance in precipitation forecast. Appropriate parameterization schemes can reasonably describe the physical process related to heavy rainfall in South China in the AFRS, such as low-level convergence, latent heat release, vertical transport of heat and water vapor, thereby depicting the multi-scale interactions of low-level jet and meso-scale convective systems in heavy rainfall suitably, and improving the prediction of heavy rainfall in South China in the AFRS as a result.     

A Simulation Study on the Characteristics of Cloud Microphysics of Heavy Rainfall in the Meiyu Front

A heavy rainfall in the Meiyu front during 4--5 July 2003 is simulated by use of the non-hydrostatic mesoscale model MM5 (V3--6) with different explicit cloud microphysical parameterization schemes. The characteristics of microphysical process of convective cloud are studied by the model outputs. The simulation study reveals that: (1) The mesoscale model MM5 with explicit cloud microphysical process is capable of simulating the instant heavy rainfall in the Meiyu front, the rainfall simulation could be improved significantly as the model resolution is increased, and the Goddard scheme is better than the Reisner or Schultz scheme. (2) The convective cloud in the Meiyu front has a comprehensive structure composed of solid, liquid and vapor phases of water, the mass density of water vapor is the largest one in the cloud; the next one is graupel, while those of ice, snow, rain water and the cloud water are almost same. The height at which mass density peaks for different hydrometeors is almost unchangeable during the heavy rainfall period. The mass density variation of rain water, ice, and graupel are consistent with that of ground precipitation, while that of water vapor in the low levels is 1--2 h earlier than the precipitation. (3) The main contribution to the water vapor budget in the atmosphere is the convergence of vapor flux through advection and convection, which provides the main vapor source of the rainfall. Besides the basic process of the auto-conversion of cloud water to rain water, there is an additional cloud microphysical process that is essential to the formation of instant heavy rainfall, the ice-phase crystals are transformed into graupels first and then the increased graupels mix with cloud water and accelerates the conversion of cloud water to rain water. The positive feedback mechanism between latent heat release and convection is the main cause to maintain and develop the heavy precipitation.     

1975年8月河南省特大暴雨雨强极值的重新估算

通过对云中气载液态水含量以及水汽和气载液态水之间的平衡方程的讨论,建立了改进的可降水量Ia公式。按照改进的公式,重新估算了1975年8月河南省特大暴雨7日20时雨强。结果表明,分别以遂平气象站记录的8 m/s和按物象估算的12 m/s地面风速为基础的改进的板桥水库附近8月7日20时雨强估算值Iae1=75.0 mm/h和Iae1=95.8 mm/h很接近实际的雨强极值Ioe=99.7 mm/h。     

长江中下游地区梅雨期降水的集合预报试验

本文利用MM5模式,通过改变模式的积云参数化方案、边界层过程和云微物理方案,构造了一个15个成员的集合预报系统,对2001年长江中下游地区梅雨期降水做了集合预报试验。试验表明,集合预报与决定预报相比,可以有效地提高梅雨降水的预报准确度;在不同分辨率条件下集合预报相对于决定预报的提高程度是不同的,分辨率越低,集合预报的价值越大。尽管如此,集合预报还具有的内在缺陷是对小雨高估、大到暴雨低估。试验也揭示了,MM5模式本身对于降水有过分预报的倾向,粗网格模式配置对细网格内降水产生重大影响。     

MODELLING CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEMS USING LINKED MODELS AND A GIS

Future climate change scenarios have been applied to a linked model at five UK sites. Results indicate a decrease in grassland productivity under a changed climate, resulting from lower soil water content, with possible large consequences to future UK water resource planning. The effect of running the grassland sub-model in isolation, compared with running it as part of a linked model showed that linked models should be used for climate change impacts studies. The location specific response to climate change was also highlighted. The model is mechanistic, consists of four sub-models (grassland, water balance, nitrate and evapotranspiration) and is spatially explicit.