1月北大西洋东部-乌拉尔山阻塞高压频次年际尺度偶极子模态特征

基于观测和再分析资料,本文研究了近几十年来1月北大西洋东部-乌拉尔山阻塞高压频次年际变异主导模态特征及与其相联的大气背景场。结果表明,1980—2019年冬季(12月—次年2月)该地区阻塞高压频次年际变异的主导模态存在明显月际差异:12月表现为北大西洋东部-欧洲西部地区阻塞高压频次的显著同位相变化,1月为北大西洋东部-欧洲西部与乌拉尔山地区阻塞高压频次的具有显著的反位相变化即偶极子模态,2月则为北大西洋东部-乌拉尔山阻塞高压频次的显著同位相变化。进一步研究表明:1月北大西洋东部-乌拉尔山阻塞高压频次偶极子模态与同期局地纬向西风、纬向风垂直切变、经向位涡梯度等大气背景场异常偶极型变化相联系。当乌拉尔山地区关键大气背景场为负异常,而北大西洋东部-欧洲西部为正异常时,两个地区阻塞高压频次分别增加和减少,呈现偶极子模态;反之亦然。阻塞高压频次偶极子模态及相关的背景环流异常可通过调节水平温度平流、垂直运动和水汽输送等来影响1月欧亚北部气温和降水,以及它们的极端事件频次。当阻塞高压频次偶极子模态处于正位相时,乌拉尔山北部(南部)和欧洲南部增温(降温),极端暖、冷事件频次分别增加(减少)和减少(增加),斯堪的纳维亚半岛北部降温且极端暖事件减少,乌拉尔山及东北亚地区降水和极端降水频次减少而欧洲大陆部分地区增加;反之亦然。此外,在冬季仅1月阻塞高压频次年际变异主导模态表现为偶极子模态可能与关键大气背景场气候态及其变异的月际差异密切相关。     

Atmospheric circulation in regional climate models over Central Europe: links to surface air temperature and the influence of driving data

The study examines simulation of atmospheric circulation, represented by circulation indices (flow direction, strength and vorticity), and links between circulation and daily surface air temperatures in regional climate models (RCMs) over Central Europe. We explore control simulations of five high-resolution RCMs from the ENSEMBLES project driven by re-analysis (ERA-40) and the same global climate model (ECHAM5 GCM) plus of one RCM (RCA) driven by different GCMs. The aims are to (1) identify errors in RCM-simulated distributions of circulation indices in individual seasons, (2) identify errors in simulated temperatures under particular circulation indices, and (3) compare performance of individual RCMs with respect to the driving data. Although most of the RCMs qualitatively reflect observed distributions of the airflow indices, each produces distributions significantly different from the observations. General biases include overestimation of the frequency of strong flow days and of strong cyclonic vorticity. Some circulation biases obviously propagate from the driving data. ECHAM5 and all simulations driven by ECHAM5 underestimate frequency of easterly flow, mainly in summer. Except for HIRHAM, however, all RCMs driven by ECHAM5 improve on the driving GCM in simulating atmospheric circulation. The influence on circulation characteristics in the nested RCM differs between GCMs, as demonstrated in a set of RCA simulations with different driving data. The driving data control on circulation in RCA is particularly weak for the BCM GCM, in which case RCA substantially modifies (but does not improve) the circulation from the driving data in both winter and summer. Those RCMs with the most distorted atmospheric circulation are HIRHAM driven by ECHAM5 and RCA driven by BCM. Relatively strong relationships between circulation indices and surface air temperatures were found in the observed data for Central Europe. The links differ by season and are usually stronger for daily maxima than minima. RCMs qualitatively reproduce these relationships. Effects of the driving model biases were found on RCMs’ performance in reproducing not only atmospheric circulation but also the links to surface temperature. However, the RCM formulation appears to be more important than the driving data in representing the latter. Differences of the circulation-to-temperature links among the RCA simulations are smaller and the links tend to be more realistic compared to the driving GCMs.     

我国前冬和后冬的划分及其气温的年际变异

基于我国762站均一化逐日平均和逐日最低气温数据集，对我国年最低气温的概率密度分布的分析表明，我国年最低气温的概率密度呈现清晰的双峰分布特征。进一步考察其原因发现东亚冬季风盛行期间我国年最低气温的分布具有显著的地域性差异，以冬季气候态气温的0℃为界大致可以分为两种气候区。综合不同气候区内年最低气温所在日期的概率密度分布的结果，将11月16日至次年1月15日划分为前冬，次年1月16日至3月15日划分为后冬。在此基础上，通过依赖于季节的经验正交函数分解方法分析了近56年我国前冬和后冬气温在年际变异上的特征，并进一步利用NCEP/NCAR全球日平均再分析资料通过合成分析的方法研究了其对应的大气定常波和瞬变波特征。结果表明:年际变化时间尺度上，我国前冬和后冬气温演变仍表现为前、后冬同相演变和反相演变这两个主要模态。同相演变模态环流异常的空间形态在前冬和后冬较为一致，并随着前冬向后冬的推移其环流异常的强度在不断加强；反相演变模态则对应了环流异常在前冬和后冬的相反变化，且其环流异常的空间形态在前冬和后冬有较大不同。对大气波动特征的分析表明，瞬变波的动力和热力的强迫作用以及定常波能量向下游的频散对北大西洋至欧亚大陆上定常波列的维持和发展具有重要作用。同相演变模态中，北大西洋上的波列将能量从北美向欧洲地区传播，加强了后冬欧洲地区的高压异常，该中心在后冬向下游的能量频散显著增强，形成了一个自欧洲经喀拉海以东至贝加尔湖附近的定常波列，大气瞬变波所引起的动力和热力强迫对该波列位于欧洲和贝加尔湖地区的大气活动中心的维持和发展具有正的贡献。反相演变模态中前冬的波动特征与同相演变模态后冬基本一致，而后冬则表现为从北大西洋中部向格陵兰岛传播，并进一步向东经乌拉尔山附近传向青藏高原北部的波列，风暴轴移动所引起的大气瞬变波的动力和热力强迫对该波列位于北大西洋地区南侧的中心有维持作用。     

基于大气环流的稻纵卷叶螟气象预测模型

基于1980-2016年全国稻纵卷叶螟逐年发生面积、产量损失资料、逐月74项大气环流特征量以及南方15省(区、市)地面气象资料,采用因子膨化处理技术、Pearson遥相关分析法和逐步回归分析法,筛选对中国稻纵卷叶螟发生面积率有显著影响的大气环流因子,构建中国稻纵卷叶螟发生面积率的多时相动态大气环流预测模型,探讨大气环流对中国稻纵卷叶螟发生的可能影响机制。结果表明:46项大气环流因子与稻纵卷叶螟发生关系密切,副热带高压类、极涡类环流因子是中国稻纵卷叶螟发生面积率的主导影响因子。建立的中国稻纵卷叶螟发生面积率年前、年后3-10月的月动态预测模型历史拟合较好,对2015年、2016年1月初及3-10月各月初外延预报两年平均准确率分别达86.6%,90.5%,91.8%,93.4%,93.4%,94.0%,94.0%,94.3%,95.4%。关键环流特征因子、当年气候年型和稻区5-9月气象条件对中国稻纵卷叶螟的发生程度具有较好的指示效应,稻纵卷叶螟发生面积率较大的年份主要出现在干暖年和湿暖年;干冷年型常导致稻纵卷叶螟发生面积率偏小。     

1月份两类ENSO的海气环流模态分析

本文对1950～2001年1月份的大气风场和大洋流场做了联合复EOF（Empirical Orthogonal Function）分解,用以探讨1月份两类ENSO（El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation）的海气环流及耦合情况,所得结果主要有:该分解第1、2模态空间场分别相应于东部型、中部型ENSO,前者在赤道太平洋东部和中部都有海温动力异常,并以东部异常最强,后者仅在中部存在此异常,两模态的时间系数都与ENSO有很好相关,为此第1、2模态可分别称为东部型、中部型ENSO的风场流场（异常）模态。东部型ENSO模态具有3～6年的年际变化和13～14年的年代际变化,中部型则有明显的7年年际变化和12、17年的年代际变化,两者中约13年的周期与冬季北太平洋NPGO（North Pacific Gyre Oscillation）的周期相同。东、中部型El Ni?o期间,沃克环流上升支分别从印尼东移至赤道西、中太平洋,并有所减弱;南、北支哈得莱环流则分别位于日界线以东及该线附近,且均有所加强,从而使南、北太平洋副热带高压偏强;而在5°S的南美沿岸则分别有垂直运动上升和下沉异常。在海气耦合上,两类ENSO模态在赤道中太平洋均存在西风异常与海洋赤道Kelvin波和Rossby波的波包解耦合,而海温动力异常对大气的影响则都起到负反馈作用,从而有利于ENSO的维持和稳定。     

On the Connection between Upper Atmospheric Dynamics and Tropospheric Parameters: Correlations between Mesopause Region Winds and the North Atlantic Oscillation

The middle- and high-latitude stratospheric and mesospheric wind field in winter is dominated by the stratospheric polar vortex, which reaches up into the mesopause region and leads to westerly winds there in winter. The tropospheric mean winter wind field is also connected with the stratospheric polar vortex, which thus can be considered as extending from the lower up to the upper atmosphere. We found that the January and February zonal winds of the mesopause region, as measured at the Collm Observatory of the University of Leipzig, are closely connected with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) which can be considered as a measure for part of the northern hemispheric mean circulation in the Atlantic and Europe domain, since it influences the circulation over that domain. The NAO itself is considered to be a measure for Central Europe winter winds and temperatures, since large NAO indices are connected with stronger westerlies in Central Europe. Thus, the mesopause region winds are also positively correlated to the Central European winter surface temperatures.     

用自由模对1998年夏季阻塞形势的诊断分析

签于大气自由模和阻塞高压的重要性 ,首先简要介绍阻塞高压与中国夏季降水的关系及 1998年夏季 5 0 0hPa异常环流场 ;然后利用 2 1波菱形截断的谱方法求出无粘性、无强迫正压涡度方程的自由解 ,即和实际大气流场十分接近的大气自由模 ,并讨论其特征 ;最后利用大气自由模的特征诊断分析了实际大气的环流特征 ,并重点用其分析了 1998年夏季的大气环流异常形势。结果表明大气自由模能很好地反映大气环流大尺度特征 ,而略去了中、小尺度涡旋 ;大气自由模的流场和绝对涡度场之间的散点图反映了 (q ,Ψ )的函数关系是分段线性或非线性的 ,尽管实际流场与绝对涡度场之间的点阵图反映两者之间成不同斜率的线性函数关系 ,但点阵比较发散 ,不能突出某些重要系统 ;1998年夏季实际大气自由模态突出了大气环流的重要特征 ,例如 ,越赤道气流、西风急流、副热带高压、阻塞高压及两极的边界效应等 ;通过自由模态的特征可以识别出纬向流及阻塞高压的持续异常 ,利用自由模的稳定性判断阻塞高压的稳定性 ,不稳定模态可以维持一段较长的时间 ,且由于这些不稳定的模存在 ,才使 1998年 6月中旬到下旬的中高纬阻塞高压稳定维持。     

准两年振荡及其对东亚大气环流和气候的影响

通过多年资料分析,本文研究了平流层准两年振荡(QBO)的演变特征及其对东亚及西太平洋地区大气环流和气候变化的影响.结果表明,平流层QBO的演变特征是:东风向西风转换最早出现在印度洋赤道地区;西风向东风转换最早出现在美洲和西太平洋赤道地区.中国东部降水量、气温以及西太平洋副高和东亚急流都有准两年周期变化,并同平流层QBO有密切关系;平流层QBO对西太平洋台风活动也有一定影响,QBO的西风位相期西太平洋台风偏少.另外,ENSO对于平流层QBO有明显影响,一般在ENSO发生之后,QBO的西风位相期持续时间缩短.     

冬季北太平洋海气环流年代际异常的统计动力诊断

本文对冬季北太平洋大气和大洋环流做了联合复经验正交函数(CEOF)分解和小波分析, 并分别讨论了第一、二模态的年代际变化及其与海表温度异常(SSTA)年代际变化(PDO、NPGO模态)的关系, 得到以下主要结论:第一、二模态对时间系数的分析显示, 其与PDO、NPGO指数的相关性较高, 且小波分析表明其分别具有明显的准22、12年的年代际变化周期, 这与PDO、NPGO模态的周期相同;第一、二模态时间系数对北太平洋SSTA的回归分析表明, 其回归系数场的空间分布分别与PDO、NPGO的十分接近。第一、二模态空间场中大气环流异常分别类似于海平面气压异常(SLPA)的AL、NPO模态, 可分称其为AL、NPO的风场模;而大洋环流异常则分别相应于SSTA的PDO、NPGO模态, 可称其为PDO、NPGO的流场模。由第一、二模态近表层流场异常得到的垂直运动空间分布分别与PDO、NPGO的空间结构相似, 说明海洋上层海盆尺度大洋环流引起的垂直运动所导致的海温动力变化是形成PDO、NPGO的重要原因, 而大洋环流异常扮演着中介角色。     

Witnessing North Atlantic westerlies variability from ships’ logbooks (1685–2008)

A monthly index based on the persistence of the westerly winds over the English Chanel is constructed for 1685–2008 using daily data from ships’ logbooks and comprehensive marine meteorological datasets. The so-called Westerly Index (WI) provides the longest instrumental record of atmospheric circulation currently available. Anomalous WI values are associated with spatially coherent climatic signals in temperature and precipitation over large areas of Europe, which are stronger for precipitation than for temperature and in winter and summer than in transitional seasons. Overall, the WI series accord with the known European climatic history, and reveal that the frequency of the westerlies in the eastern Atlantic during the twentieth century and the Late Maunder Minimum was not exceptional in the context of the last three centuries. It is shown that the WI provides additional and complementary information to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) indices. The analysis of WI series during the industrial era indicates an overall good agreement with the winter and high-summer NAO, with the exception of several multidecadal periods of weakened correlation. These decoupled periods between the frequency and the intensity of the zonal flow are interpreted on the basis of several sources of non-stationarity affecting the centres of the variability of the North Atlantic and their teleconnections. Comparisons with NAO reconstructions and long instrumental indices extending back to the seventeenth century suggest that similar situations have occurred in the past, which call for caution when reconstructing the past atmospheric circulation from climatic proxies. The robustness and extension of its climatic signal, the length of the series and its instrumental nature make the WI an excellent benchmark for proxy calibration in Europe and Greenland.     

低涡影响下湖南一次致洪极端暴雨过程成因分析

利用NCEP再分析资料和地面自动站观测数据,从环流特征、低涡演变等方面,诊断分析了2019年7月6~9日湖南中南部地区的一次致洪极端暴雨过程的成因。结果表明:此次极端暴雨具有显著极端性和“潇湘夜雨”的日变化特征,在副高长时间稳定、主体异常偏南的环流背景下,地面浅薄冷空气侵入,不对称的位涡分布、中低层持续较强上升运动促使低涡加强并长时间维持是造成湖南此次极端暴雨的主要原因。低涡加强时段与降水最强时段、正位涡中心与暴雨中心均对应较好。强降雨发展阶段垂直螺旋度维持“下正上负”分布特征,低层正值中心的大小与降水强度变化一致。湖南中部以南强雨带与低层正螺旋度大值中心均出现在南岭山脉北麓的陡峭地形区。水汽主要来源于边界层,925 hPa水汽汇合中心出现时刻、区域与暴雨发生时段、落区吻合,两支主要的水汽输送带分别来源于孟加拉湾的偏西气流和南海的西南气流。      

Detection of climate change in Europe by analyzing European atmospheric circulation patterns from 1881 to 1989

Summary The time series of classified European atmospheric circulation patterns for the time period of 1881–1989 are analyzed. Frequencies of several circulation types changed considerably during the last years, showing extremes never reached before. Changes can be observed both in the annual frequencies and in the seasonal ones for many circulation types. The time series were analyzed for homogeneity using non-parametric statistical methods. The annual cycle shows an increase of the frequency of zonal circulations in winter (December and January) and a corresponding decrease of cold meridional circulations. The climatological consequences of this are more frequent mild and humid winters in Central Europe, with precipitation mostly falling as rain. Change points in the series occurred with high probability during the seventies. Examples demonstrate the coupling of circulation patterns to temperature and precipitation.With 9 Figures     

The dynamical effects of divergent wind on the intraseasonal variability of the East Asian circulation

In this paper, the dynamical effects of divergent wind on the intraseasonal variability of atmospheric circulation over East Asia are analyzed by using the function of Rossby-wave source and the energy exchanging function be-tween divergent component and rotational component of the flow.The results analyzed from the observed data show that the advection of vorticity by divergent wind caused by the heating due to the monsoon rainfall in the south to the Yangtze River and the strong convective activities around the Philippines may play an important role in the northward jump of westerly jet stream during the seasonal transition from spring circulation to summer circulation over East Asia. Due to the northward movement of the advection of vorticity by the divergent wind, the energy transformation from divergent component into rotational component can be caused over the Yellow River basin and Northwest China and will cause the intensification of the zonal flow there. Thus, the jet stream abruptly shifts northward to North China.Moreover, the analysed results also show that the advection of vorticity by divergent wind caused by the heating due to the strong convective activities around the Philippines also plays an important role in the intraseasonal varia-bility of the circulation over East Asia during the seasonal transition from summer to winter. With the southward movement of the advection of vorticity by the divergent wind, the energy transformation from divergent component into rotational component can be caused over East Asia, especially over the Yangtze-Huaihe River basin. Therefore, the jet stream gradually moves southward from North China to the Yangtze River basin.     

华南沿海2011年7月15—18日持续暴雨过程中的季风槽与中尺度对流系统相互作用

应用NCEP FNL再分析资料及位涡分离反演等方法,对华南沿海2011年7月15—18日持续暴雨过程中季风槽与中尺度对流系统的相互作用进行了研究,主要针对暴雨发生期间季风槽气旋性涡度向上发展的机理及其对季风槽维持发展和中尺度对流系统活动的影响进行分析。结果发现,季风槽的中尺度对流系统发展于弱斜压性环境中,大多在槽东西两端涡度中心区发展最强。南侧盛行的西南低空急流为对流反复发生提供了对流发展的“可维持性”条件,是对流得以组织发展成为中尺度对流系统的重要原因。涡度收支诊断表明,季风槽气旋性涡度生成主要由中尺度对流系统低层辐合引起。位涡分离反演结果证实,季风槽气旋性环流增强主要由与中尺度对流系统潜热加热相关的扰动位涡造成,并随着中尺度对流系统加热峰值高度升高而向上发展,是大尺度环流对中尺度对流系统潜热加热动力响应的结果。在季风槽东西两端,由于中尺度对流系统发展强烈且持续,具有更高的加热效率,引起的气旋性涡度向上发展最为明显。其结果可引起中尺度对流系统西南一侧向北非地转风发展,并在地转偏向力作用下增强西风,维持低空急流的发展,为对流反复发生提供条件。这些都说明季风槽大尺度环流与中尺度对流系统相互作用在中尺度对流系统和持续暴雨形成过程中有重要作用。     

Winter mean temperature variability in Turkey associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation

Changes and variability in seasonal average mean and monthly mean winter (DJF) air temperature series at 70 stations of Turkey and the circulation types at 500-hPa geopotential height level were investigated to explain atmospheric controls of temperature variations during the extreme (weak and strong) phases and normal (negative and positive) phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation (i.e., Ponta Delgada–Reykjavik and the Gibraltar–Reykjavik) indices. During the positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation indices (NAOIs), northeasterly circulation increased, and thus spatially coherent and significant cold signals dominate over the majority of Turkey. This pattern is closely linked to anomalously low 500-hPa heights over the region of the Icelandic Low, and anomalously high geopotential heights over the regions of the Azores High, the western Mediterranean basin and the Europe, in general including the Balkans and northwest Turkey. Contrarily, during the negative phases of the NAOIs, prevailing westerly winds that originate from the subtropical northeast Atlantic increase, and thus spatially coherent and significant warm signals over the Anatolian peninsula appear. This pattern is closely linked to the increased cyclonic activity and associated increased westerly and southwesterly circulation causing warm maritime air advection over the Mediterranean basin toward Turkey.     

Subseasonal forecast skills and biases of global summer monsoons in the NCEP Climate Forecast System version 2

Subseasonal forecast skills and biases of global summer monsoons are diagnosed using daily data from the hindcasts of 45-day integrations by the NCEP Climate Forecast System version 2. Predictions for subseasonal variability of zonal wind and precipitation are generally more skillful over the Asian and Australian monsoon regions than other monsoon regions. Climatologically, forecasts for the variations of dynamical monsoon indices have high skills at leads of about 2 weeks. However, apparent interannual differences exist, with high skills up to 5 weeks in exceptional cases. Comparisons for the relationships of monsoon indices with atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns between skillful and unskillful forecasts indicate that skills for subseasonal variability of a monsoon index depend partially on the degree to which the observed variability of the index attributes to the variation of large-scale circulation. Thus, predictions are often more skillful when the index is closely linked to atmospheric circulation over a broad region than over a regional and narrow range. It is also revealed that, the subseasonal variations of biases of winds, precipitation, and surface temperature over various monsoon regions are captured by a first mode with seasonally independent biases and a second mode with apparent phase transition of biases during summer. The first mode indicates the dominance of overall weaker-than-observed summer monsoons over major monsoon regions. However, at certain stages of monsoon evolution, these underestimations are regionally offset or intensified by the time evolving biases portrayed by the second mode. This feature may be partially related to factors such as the shifts of subtropical highs and intertropical convergence zones, the reversal of biases of surface temperature over some monsoon regions, and the transition of regional circulation system. The significant geographical differences in bias growth with increasing lead time reflect the distinctions of initial memory capability of the climate system over different monsoon regions.     

Influence of circulation types on temperature extremes in Europe

The aim of this study is to determine the influence of atmospheric circulation on the recently observed changes in the number of warm days and cold days in Europe. The temperature series for stations in the European Climate Assessment and Data set project and the Grosswetterlagen (GWL) were used here. The temperature series were first adjusted for global warming before determining the indices for cold and warm extremes. The 29 GWLs were grouped in ten circulation types. Then, the number of days a certain circulation type occurred was determined for each winter (December, January and February) and summer (June, July and August). The relation between the circulation type frequencies and the temperature indices was modelled with a multi-regression fit over the period 1947–1974 and tested for the period 1974–2000. The difference between the observed indices and the calculated indices in the second period (using the fit coefficients for the first period) shows a warming effect for both winter and summer and for at least the warm day index, which is unaccounted for by the global warming trend. A simple snow model shows that variations in the European snow cover extent are likely influencing the cold and warm day indices in winter: there is a correlation between the decreasing trend of the snow cover extent in Europe and the increasing (decreasing) trend of the number of warm (cold) days for stations throughout Europe.     

Physical mechanisms of European winter snow cover variability and its relationship to the NAO

Annual snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased in the past two decades, an effect associated with global warming. The regional scale changes of snow cover during winter, however, vary significantly from one region to another. In the present study, snow cover variability over Europe and its connection to other atmospheric variables was investigated using Cyclostationary Empirical Orthogonal Function (CSEOF) analysis. The evolution of atmospheric variables related to each CSEOF mode of snow cover variability was derived via regression analysis in CSEOF space. CSEOF analysis clearly shows that the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) is related to European snow cover, particularly in January and February. A negative NAO phase tends to result in a snow cover increases, whereas a positive NAO phase results in snow cover decreases. The temporal changes in the connection between the NAO and European snow cover are explained by time-dependent NAO-related temperature anomalies. If the NAO phase is negative, the temperature is lower in Europe and snow cover increases; by contrast, when the NAO phase is positive, the temperature is higher and snow cover decreases. Temperature and snow cover variations in Europe are associated with the thermal advection by anomalous wind by NAO. CSEOF analysis also shows an abrupt increase of snow cover in December and January and a decrease in February and March since the year 2000, approximately. This abrupt change is associated with sub-seasonal variations of atmospheric circulation in the study region.     

An analysis on the physical process of the influence of AO on ENSO

The influence of the spring AO on ENSO has been demonstrated in several recent studies. This analysis further explores the physical process of the influence of AO on ENSO using the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data over the period 1958–2010. We focus on the formation of the westerly wind burst in the tropical western Pacific, and examine the evolution and formation of the atmospheric circulation, atmospheric heating, and SST anomalies in association with the spring AO variability. The spring AO variability is found to be independent from the East Asian winter monsoon activity. The spring AO associated circulation anomalies are supported by the interaction between synoptic-scale eddies and the mean-flow and its associated vorticity transportation. Surface wind changes may affect surface heat fluxes and the oceanic heat transport, resulting in the SST change. The AO associated warming in the equatorial SSTs results primarily from the ocean heat transport in the face of net surface heat flux damping. The tropical SST warming is accompanied by anomalous atmospheric heating in the subtropical north and south Pacific, which sustains the anomalous westerly wind in the equatorial western Pacific through a Gill-like atmospheric response from spring to summer. The anomalous westerly excites an eastward propagating and downwelling equatorial Kelvin wave, leading to SST warming in the tropical central-eastern Pacific in summer-fall. The tropical SST, atmospheric heating, and atmospheric circulation anomalies sustain and develop through the Bjerknes feedback mechanism, which eventually result in an El Niño-like warming in the tropical eastern Pacific in winter.     

Circulation statistics and climate change in Central Europe: PRUDENCE simulations and observations

PRUDENCE simulations of the climate in Central Europe are analysed with respect to mean temperature, mean precipitation and three monthly mean geostrophic circulation indices. The three global models show important circulation biases in the control climate, in particular in the strength of the west-circulations in winter and summer. The nine regional models inherit much of the circulation biases from their host model, especially in winter. In summer, the regional models show a larger spread in circulation statistics, depending on nesting procedures and other model characteristics. Simulated circulation biases appear to have a significant inluence on simulated temperature and precipitation. The PRUDENCE ensemble appears to be biased towards warmer and wetter than observed circulations in winter, and towards warmer and dryer circulations in summer. A2-scenario simulations show important circulation changes, which have a significant impact on changes in the distributions of monthly mean temperature and precipitation. It is likely that interactions between land–surface processes and atmospheric circulation play an important role in the simulated changes in the summer climate in Central Europe.