东亚冬季风的年代际变化及其与全球气候变化的可能联系

对近年来中外关于东亚冬季风(EAWM)年代际变化问题研究进展做了回顾和评述,主要包括以下3个方面内容:(1)东亚冬季风明显受到全球气候变化的影响,从20世纪50年代开始,中国冬季气温经历了一次冷期(从20世纪50年代延续到80年代初中期),一次暖期(从20世纪80年代初中后期延续到21世纪初)和近10-15年(约从1998年开始)出现的气候变暖趋缓期(也称气候变暖停顿期)。(2)东亚冬季风主要表现出强-弱-强3阶段的特征,即从1950年到1986/1987年,明显偏强;从1986/1987年冬季开始,东亚冬季风减弱;约2005年之后,东亚冬季风开始由弱转强。与东亚冬季风的年代际变化特征相对应,东亚冬季大气环流以及中国冬季气温和寒潮都表现出一致的年代际变化。(3)东亚冬季风的年代际变化与大气环流和太平洋海表温度(SST)的区域模态变化密切相关。当北半球环状模/北极涛动(NAM/AO)和太平洋年代际振荡(PDO)处于负(正)位相,东亚冬季风偏强(弱),中国冬季气温偏低(高)。此外,北大西洋年代尺度振荡(AMO)对东亚冬季风也有重要影响,在AMO负位相时,对应东亚冷期(强冬季风),正位相对应暖期(弱冬季风)。因而海洋的年代际变化是造成东亚冬季风气候脉动的主要自然原因,而全球气候变暖对东亚冬季风强度的减弱也有明显影响。     

东亚冬季风及其影响的进一步研究I.东亚冬季风变化及异常的特征

东亚冬季风是北半球冬季最活跃的大气环流系统,其活动有重要影响,其向南爆发可以越过赤道对澳大利亚夏季风起作用。但相对夏季风,人们对东亚冬季风的研究一直较少。作者首先利用Hadley中心近百年的北半球海平面气压场资料,改进提出了一个能更好表征东亚冬季风强度的指数,进一步分析研究了东亚冬季风的年际和年代际变化及其异常特征。其结果表明,东亚冬季风不仅存在着明显的年际变化,主要有准两年的振荡周期和5～7年左右的周期,还存在周期为25～30年左右以及周期为十几年的年代际变化。利用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,采用相关分析、合成分析的方法,还系统研究了东亚冬季风异常时的大气环流特征。对比分析表明,对应强、弱东亚冬季风,大尺度环流系统(蒙古高压、阿留申低压、500 hPa位势高度场等)的变化特征基本上呈反相分布;并且在强、弱东亚冬季风年,赤道地区的Hadley环流和Walker环流也出现基本反相的异常分布特征;而且赤道西太平洋有西(东)风异常出现,菲律宾以东有异常气旋(反气旋)性环流。在对异常东亚冬季风诊断分析的基础上,用一个大气环流模式（GCM）模拟了异常东亚冬季风的活动。通过对数值模拟结果的强、弱东亚冬季风进行对比分析发现,在强、弱东亚冬季风时,北半球中高纬度大气环流的结构会出现明显的变化和调整;同时,热带地区大气环流也有显著的差异。数值模拟和资料分析结果有较好的一致性,从而进一步揭示了东亚冬季风的变化和异常特征。     

东亚冬季风及其影响的进一步研究Ⅰ.东亚冬季风变化及异常的特征

东亚冬季风是北半球冬季最活跃的大气环流系统,其活动有重要影响,其向南爆发可以越过赤道对澳大利亚夏季风起作用。但相对夏季风,人们对东亚冬季风的研究一直较少。作者首先利用Hadley中心近百年的北半球海平面气压场资料,改进提出了一个能更好表征东亚冬季风强度的指数,进一步分析研究了东亚冬季风的年际和年代际变化及其异常特征。其结果表明,东亚冬季风不仅存在着明显的年际变化,主要有准两年的振荡周期和5~7年左右的周期,还存在周期为25~30年左右以及周期为十几年的年代际变化。利用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,采用相关分析、合成分析的方法,还系统研究了东亚冬季风异常时的大气环流特征。对比分析表明,对应强、弱东亚冬季风,大尺度环流系统(蒙古高压、阿留申低压、500 hPa位势高度场等)的变化特征基本上呈反相分布;并且在强、弱东亚冬季风年,赤道地区的Hadley环流和Walker环流也出现基本反相的异常分布特征;而且赤道西太平洋有西(东)风异常出现,菲律宾以东有异常气旋(反气旋)性环流。在对异常东亚冬季风诊断分析的基础上,用一个大气环流模式(GCM)模拟了异常东亚冬季风的活动。通过对数值模拟结果的强、弱东亚冬季风进行对比分析发现,在强、弱东亚冬季风时,北半球中高纬度大气环流的结构会出现明显的变化和调整;同时,热带地区大气环流也有显著的差异。数值模拟和资料分析结果有较好的一致性,从而进一步揭示了东亚冬季风的变化和异常特征。     

东亚—北太平洋大气环流和瞬变扰动的年代际变化

用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,分析了东亚—北太平洋大气环流、大气斜压性和天气尺度瞬变扰动活动的年代际变化特征。东亚—北太平洋地区低层大气温度和比湿及高层的西风急流都存在明显的年代际变化。西风年代际异常与大气斜压性年代际异常之间有密切联系。夏季北太平洋北部到西伯利亚高原上空的天气尺度瞬变扰动活动年代际增强,但夏季低层瞬变热力和瞬变水汽强迫的年代际异常对北太平洋中纬度低层平均温度和比湿年代际异常的作用并不显著。冬季,西太平洋西风急流年代际增强与急流下方大气斜压性年代际增加相一致,使该地区瞬变扰动年代际增强,增强的瞬变扰动将更多能量传送给西风气流,巩固了西风急流的年代际异常。年代际尺度上冬季异常的瞬变热力强迫和瞬变水汽强迫对低层大气温度和比湿异常有显著的削弱作用。     

北极涛动年代际变化对华北地区干旱化的影响

华北地区夏季降水在20世纪70年代中期以后进入年代际偏少阶段,表现出明显的干旱化趋势。华北干旱加剧具有特殊的大气环流背景,主要表现为在20世纪70年代中期以后亚洲大陆东部的热低压减弱,同时对流层低层到高层东亚夏季风环流减弱。这种异常的大气环流背景主要是由海陆热力差异和北极涛动的年代际变化造成的。近二十几年来,北极涛动维持在高指数位相是导致东亚地区大气环流异常的重要原因,并由此造成了华北干旱的加剧。     

东亚夏季风降水年代际变异模态及其与太平洋年代际振荡的关系

利用全球陆地月平均降水资料、英国气象局哈德莱中心的月平均海表温度距平(SSTA)资料及NCEP/NCAR再分析大气环流资料,探讨东亚夏季风降水年代际变率及其与太平洋年代际振荡(PDO)的联系。研究指出:东亚夏季风降水年代际变异模态以及PDO均在1976年前后呈现显著的年代际转折,并且东亚夏季风降水与PDO在年代际尺度上具有较好的相关关系。PDO能够在对流层低层激发出与年代际东亚夏季风环流较为相似的大气环流异常特征,表明东亚夏季风环流的年代际变化可能受大气外强迫因子PDO在对流层低层的外源强迫作用影响,最终导致东亚夏季风降水发生年代际变化。     

北半球大气环流及其冬季风的年代际变化对青藏高原冬季降雪的影响

对1961~2010年间北半球大气环流背景异常变化及其东亚冬季风指数(东亚大槽位置指数-CW、西伯利亚高压指数-SH)与青藏高原降雪之间在年代际尺度上的相关关系进行了分析,结果表明:北半球冬季行星波年代际尺度上的异常导致了青藏高原地区冬季降雪在年代际尺度上的变化,北半球行星波"冬三(波)"流型的年代际尺度变化是青藏高原地区冬季降雪年代际尺度上增加/减少的环流背景;青藏高原冬季降雪与东亚冬季风之间也存在着年代际尺度上的显著相关。相对于1961~1986年间的冬季风减弱,青藏高原地区冬季降雪量呈现出增加趋势。结果也指出,青藏高原地区的冬季降雪、CW和SH在1986年前后存在一次显著的突变;突变后北半球冬季三波流型明显增强,青藏高原地区的降雪也相应发生了由多到少的变化。     

近40年来东亚冬季风的年代际时空变化趋势

利用经验正交函数－奇异值分解（EOF－SVD）综合分析方法和1961～2000年NCEP/NCAR月平均再分析资料对近40年来东亚冬季风和冬季表面气温的年代际变化特征及其相关关系进行了分析。研究结果表明, EOF得到的冬季海平面气压场主成分空间结构（第一特征向量）及其时间系数可以较好地反映出东亚冬季风的变化, 而且可以同时得到东亚冬季风强度和南扩程度的变化, 具有一定的优越性。通过对冬季海平面气压和表面气温年代际分量的EOF－SVD综合分析, 发现了东亚冬季风强度减弱、南扩加强的年代际变化趋势, 冬季表面气温则表现出中高纬地区海陆热力差异减弱、低纬地区海陆热力差异加强的年代际变化特征, 两者之间存在很好的对应关系。另外, 大陆冬季表面气温与海平面气压的年代际对应关系比海洋的更加显著, 表明对温室效应的区域气候响应与东亚冬季风的年代际变化之间可能存在较为密切的联系。     

热带和副热带环流对东亚低纬度冬季风强度影响

东亚冬季风具有南北一致变化和南北反相变化两种主要模态。与第一模态反映的南北贯穿的冬季风整体强弱变化不同,第二模态体现了低纬度（中国南方地区）冬季风强弱变化不依赖于中高纬度（中国北方地区）冬季风强弱、甚至与之相反的变化状态。本文利用经验正交函数分析、相关分析、偏相关分析等方法重点研究了在第二模态背景下,低纬度（中国南方地区）冬季风强弱变化对应的热带和副热带环流异常特征。研究发现:热带辐合带是影响低纬度冬季风的一个重要系统。当热带辐合带加强并向北推进时,热带西太平洋及南海地区对流上升运动相应加强。这一上升支可能强迫出低层偏北风异常,从而引起低纬度冬季风加强。此外,副热带高空急流是影响低纬度冬季风的另一个重要系统。急流轴上风速加强会造成入口区准地转偏北风的异常,它强迫出的正次级环流也会相应加强,对应急流北侧的异常下沉和南侧的异常上升,并促使低层产生偏北风异常,也即促进了低纬度冬季风加强。进一步考察热带辐合带对流活动和副热带急流风速异常对低纬度冬季风的独立和协同影响发现,前者的影响相对更为重要。而在二者同时增强的综合作用下,可引起中国南部35°N以南地区的偏北风异常显著增强,反之亦然。上述结果揭示,冬季低纬度风场的变化不仅受到北方冷空气爆发的影响,它还受制于热带、副热带环流系统异常的共同调控作用。     

季风湿润区冬季水汽收支年际及年代际变化特征

采用1958—2007年NCEP/NCAR再分析资料和我国160站降水资料,对东亚大陆季风湿润区冬季的水汽收支变化与大气环流和我国降水异常特征的关系进行研究。结果表明:冬季水汽收支时间序列表现出明显的长期气候变化趋势。挑选的水汽收支高、低值年不仅能够指示季风湿润区经向风的异常变化,还能够指示东亚冬季风的强弱和降水的异常变化。高值年,蒙古冷高压和阿留申低压偏弱,对流层低层为异常偏南风,整层为异常逆时针环流,30°N以南的辐合和上升运动强,大气水分收入增多,降水增加;低值年则相反。差值合成的异常降水量中心值可达40 mm以上,差值合成的水汽异常输入主要集中在600~900 hPa。合成的经向水汽收支占净收支变化的91.3%,纬向上相差较小。季风湿润区南、北区域的水汽收支及降水的差异明显,纬向的收入支出对此差异贡献较大。水汽收支的年代际特征,不仅能够指示水汽输送的强弱及从海洋输入水汽的多少,还能够指示季风湿润区降水的变化,且差值合成的异常降水量最大可达30 mm以上。     

Multi-timescale variation of East Asian winter monsoon intensity and its relation with sea surface temperature during last millennium based on ECHO-G simulation

Based on the simulation results derived from ECHO-G global coupled climate model, several East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) indices are compared in order to choose the most suitable one for signaling the intensity of winter monsoon in the last millennium. The index I_shi, which is defined with normalized sea level pressure difference between sea and land in mid and low latitudes, is selected to describe the winter monsoon intensity variation owing to its better capability for reflecting the variation of winter monsoon subsystems, such as the continental high pressure, Aleutian low, East Asian major trough, westerly jet stream, and surface air temperature than the other indices examined. Wavelet analysis on index I_shi shows that the EAWM intensity is characterized by multi-timescale variation with inter-annual, decadal, inter-decadal and inter-centennial oscillations on the background of a slight descending trend. Correlation analysis between the EAWM index and sea surface temperature (SST) at various timescales reveals that the SST in mid-latitudes might provide the background of the EAWM strength changes above decadal timescales, and a negative-feedback process lasting for about two years is found between the EAWM intensity and the SST in the eastern equatorial Pacific. According to the correlation, the El Nino occurrence in the second-half of the year leads to weaker EAWM than normal in the following winter and the weakened EAWM corresponds to lower SST in eastern equatorial Pacific after about half a year, which will then strengthen the EAWM intensity in the next winter. It is a stable feedback process and its mechanism is discussed.     

对流层上层副热带西风急流与东亚冬季风的关系

利用NCEP/NCAR月平均再分析资料,研究冬季对流层上层西风急流的时空变化特征,提出表征急流强度和位置变化的指数,进而探讨西风急流与东亚冬季风的关系。结果表明:冬季西风急流强度指数体现了西太平洋与高纬大陆的热力对比,较好地反映了西伯利亚高压与阿留申低压的强度变化,可作为表征冬季风强弱变化的一个定量指标,急流增强(减弱)对应西伯利亚冷高压和阿留申低压加强(减弱),东亚冬季风偏强(弱)。急流强度指数与不同高度冬季风子系统的显著相关表明,东亚冬季风活动异常不只是对流层中低层的现象,而在整个对流层都有明显反映,低层的西伯利亚高压和阿留申低压、中层的欧亚脊、东亚大槽及西太平洋副热带高压与高层的西风急流是同相变化的。在此基础上还比较了急流强度指数和北极涛动指数(AO)与东亚冬季风的关系,急流强度变化体现了欧亚大陆与西太平洋的热力差异,而AO则主要反映极地与中纬度环状模的反相变化,所以急流强度变化与东亚冬季风的关系更为密切。     

Interdecadal Variability of the East Asian Winter Monsoon and Its Possible Links to Global Climate Change

This paper presents a concise summary of the studies on interdecadal variability of the East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) from three main perspectives. (1) The EAWM has been significantly affected by global climate change. Winter temperature in China has experienced three stages of variations from the beginning of the 1950s: a cold period (from the beginning of the 1950s to the early or mid 1980s), a warm period (from the early or mid 1980s to the early 2000s), and a hiatus period in recent 10 years (starting from 1998). The strength of the EAWM has also varied in three stages: a stronger winter monsoon period (1950 to 1986/87), a weaker period (1986/87 to 2004/05), and a strengthening period (from 2005). (2) Corresponding to the interdecadal variations of the EAWM, the East Asian atmospheric circulation, winter temperature of China, and the occurrence of cold waves over China have all exhibited coherent interdecadal variability. The upper-level zonal circulation was stronger, the mid-tropospheric trough over East Asia was deeper with stronger downdrafts behind the trough, and the Siberian high was stronger during the cold period than during the warm period. (3) The interdecadal variations of the EAWM seem closely related to major modes of variability in the atmospheric circulation and the Pacific sea surface temperature. When the Northern Hemisphere annular mode/Arctic Oscillation and the Pacific decadal oscillation were in negative (positive) phase, the EAWM was stronger (weaker), leading to colder (warmer) temperatures in China. In addition, the negative (positive) phase of the Atlantic multi decadal oscillation coincided with relatively cold (warm) temperatures and stronger (weaker) EAWMs. It is thus inferred that the interdecadal variations in the ocean may be one of the most important natural factors influencing long-term variability in the EAWM, although global warming may have also played a significant role in weakening the EAWM.     

Analysis of the Decadal and Interdecadal Variations of the East Asian Winter Monsoon as Simulated by 20 Coupled Models in IPCC AR4

Using the output data of 20 coupled climate models used in IPCC AR4 and observational data from NCEP, the capability of the models to simulate the boreal winter climatology of the East Asian sea level pressure, 850-hPa wind, and surface air temperature; the decadal variations of the East Asian winter mon- soon (EAWM) intensity and EAWM-related circulation, and the interdecadal variations of EAWM-related circulation are systematically evaluated. The results indicate that 16 models can weakly simulate the declin- ing trend of the EAWM in the 1980s. More than half of the models produce relatively reasonable decadal variations of the EAWM-related circulation and the interdecadal di?erences of EAWM-related circulation between the boreal winters of 1960-1985 and 1986-1998, including the weakened Siberian high, Aleutian low, and East Asian trough, the enhanced Arctic oscillation and North Pacific oscillation, and a deepened polar vortex. It is found that the performance of the multi-selected-model ensemble in reproducing the spatial dis- tribution of the variations is encouraging, although the variational amplitudes are generally smaller than the observations. In addition, it is found that BCCR_BCM2.0, CGCM3.1_T63, CNRM_CM3, CSIRO_MK3.0, GISS-ER, INM_CM3.0, and MRI_CGCM2.3.2 perform well in every aspect     

Analysis of the decadal and interdecadal variations of the east asian winter monsoon as simulated by 20 coupled models in IPCC AR4

Using the output data of 20 coupled climate models used in IPCC AR4 and observational data from NCEP, the capability of the models to simulate the boreal winter climatology of the East Asian sea level pressure, 850-hPa wind, and surface air temperature; the decadal variations of the East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) intensity and EAWM-related circulation, and the interdecadal variations of EAWM-related circulation are systematically evaluated. The results indicate that 16 models can weakly simulate the declining trend of the EAWM in the 1980s. More than half of the models produce relatively reasonable decadal variations of the EAWM-related circulation and the interdecadal differences of EAWM-related circulation between the boreal winters of 1960-1985 and 1986-1998, including the weakened Siberian high, Aleutian low, and East Asian trough, the enhanced Arctic oscillation and North Pacific oscillation, and a deepened polar vortex. It is found that the performance of the multi-selected-model ensemble in reproducing the spatial distribution of the variations is encouraging, although the variational amplitudes are generally smaller than the observations. In addition, it is found that BCCR-BCM2.0, CGCM3.1-T63, CNRM-CM3, CSIRO-MK3.0, GISS-ER, INM-CM3.0, and MRI-CGCM2.3.2 perform well in every aspect.     

An Index of East Asian Winter Monsoon Applied to the Description of China's Mainland Winter Temperature Changes

Using the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data （Version 1.0） and the observation data of China from January 1951 to February 2007, a new index of East Asian winter monsoon circulation （I EAWM） was defined based on the comparison of previous different winter monsoon indices and circulation factors influencing the winter climate over China. Its relationships with winter temperature over China and large-scale circulation were analyzed. Results show that IEAWM can successfully describe the variation of China＇s mainland winter temperature and the East Asian winter monsoon （EAWM） system. This index reflects the integrated effect of the circulations over high and low latitudes and the thermal difference between the continent and the ocean. While in the previous studies, most monsoon indices only describe the single monsoon member. The IEAWM is a good indicator of the intensity of the EAWM. Positive values of/EAWM correspond to the strong EAWM, the stronger Siberian high and East Asian trough than normal , and the strengthening of the meridional shear of 500-hPa zonal wind between high and low latitudes over East Asia, and therefore, the southward cold advection becomes stronger and leads to the decrease in surface temperature over China; and vice versa. The IEAWM inter decadal change is obviously positive before the mid-1980s, but negative since the mid-1980s, in good agreement with the fact of the winter warming in China after 1985.     

INTERRELATION BETWEEN EAST-ASIAN WINTER MONSOON AND INDIAN/PACIFIC SST WITH THE INTERDECADAL VARIATION*

Investigated statistically is the interrelation between East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) and SST over sensitive areas of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.with focus on the relation of EAWM to strong ENSO signal area.i.e.,the equatorial eastern Pacific (EEP) SST.Evidence suggests that the EAWM variation is intimately associated not only with the EEP SST but with the equatorial western Pacific "warm pool" and equatorial Indian/northwestern Pacific Kuroshio SST as well:the EAWM and ENSO interact strongly with each other on the interannual time scales,exhibiting pronounced interdecadal variation mainly under the joint effect of the monsoon QBO and the monsoon/SST background field features on an interdecadal basis-when both fields are in the same phase(anti-phase).strong EAWM contributes to EEP SST rise(drop)in the following winter,corresponding to a warm(cold)ENSO cycle;the EAWM QBO causes ENSO cycle to be strong phase-locked with seasonal variation,making the EEP SST rise lasting from April-May to May-June of the next year,which plays an important role in maintaining a warm ENSO phase.     

How Well do Existing Indices Measure the Strength of the East Asian Winter Monsoon？

Defining the intensity of the East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) with a simple index has been a difficult task. This paper elaborates on the meanings of 18 existing EAWM strength indices and classifies them into four categories: low level wind indices, upper zonal wind shear indices, east-west pressure contrast indices, and East Asian trough indices. The temporal/spatial performance and prediction potential of these indices are then analyzed for the 1957--2001 period. It reveals that on the decadal timescale, most indices except the east--west pressure contrast indices can well capture the continuous weakening of the EAWM around 1986. On the interannual timescale, the low level wind indices and East Asian trough indices have the best predictability based on knowledge of the El Nino-Southern Oscillation and Arctic Oscillation, respectively. All the 18 existing indices can well describe the EAWM-related circulation, precipitation, and lower tropospheric air temperature anomalies. However, the variations of surface air temperature over large areas of central China cannot be well captured by most indices, which is possibly related to topographic effects. The results of this study may provide a possible reference for future studies of the EAWM.     

全球不同空间尺度陆地年降水的年代尺度变化特征

基于1951~2010年GPCC（Global Precipitation Climatology Centre）的逐月降水数据,利用集合经验模分解法（Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition,简称EEMD法）对全球、东西半球、五个大陆和四个典型干旱半干旱区等不同空间尺度年降水量的年代尺度特征进行了研究,区分了不同空间尺度上降水的年代际变化及其长期趋势。结果发现:（1）全球陆地平均降水既存在年代际的周期振荡,又存在长期变化的趋势,降水的年代际周期振荡的强度远大于降水的长期趋势,两者的共同作用使得全球陆地平均降水呈现以年代际周期振荡为主的特征。（2）在半球尺度,2000年以前,东、西半球具有明显相反的年代尺度变化特征,东半球变干（降水减少）,西半球变湿（降水增加）。（3）1951~2010年,欧亚大陆和非洲大陆与北美、南美和澳洲大陆的年代际振荡和趋势存在着一个近似反位相的关系;干旱化与干旱时段是完全不同的两个过程,两者所处的时段也不同;近10年（2001~2010年）全球五个大陆可能将进入一个相对湿润的时段。（4）四个典型干旱半干旱区降水的年代尺度变化具有明显的区域差异。总体来说,华北和北非与北美和中亚降水在长期趋势及年代际振荡上具有反位相的特征。华北和北非的年代际振荡具有近似的位相。在最近几十年,北美和中亚同处于湿润时段,但前者开始于1975年,后者开始于1985年。此外,中亚的第一个湿润时段（1959~1968年）却对应北美的干旱时段。     

太平洋年代际振荡的年代际预测方法

太平洋年代际振荡（PDO）是北太平洋海表温度年代际变率的主模态。由于太平洋年代际振荡对区域乃至全球气候的显著影响,其合理的预测结果可以带来多方面收益。然而,针对太平洋年代际振荡及其有关的海表温度的年代际预测,目前气候模式的预测水平还十分有限,因此,提出了一个新的增量方法。一系列的验证结果表明,增量方法可以有效预测太平洋年代际振荡,其中包括成功预测出其振荡的年代际转折。增量方法的预测过程主要包括3个步骤:（1）采用5 a滑动平均得到太平洋年代际振荡的年代际变率;（2）利用3 a增量形式的预测因子构建预测模型,预测3 a增量的太平洋年代际振荡（DI_PDO）;（3）将预测得到的DI_PDO加上3 a前的观测PDO,得到最后预测的PDO。增量方法亦可以应用到气候系统年代际内部变率的其他模态（如:北大西洋年代际振荡）和其他气候变量的年代际预测（如:海表温度）。