THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AND ROLE OF THERMALS IN THE STRATUS-TOPPED BOUNDARY LAYER*

From results of two large-eddy simulation of stratus-topped boundary layer,the structure,thermodynamic properties and role of thermals are investigated by using conditional sampling methods,which divided the thermals into the warm/moist,cool/dry,warm/dry and cool/moist events.The results show that the main turbulent circulation in the stratus-topped boundary layer is composed of the warm/moist updraft and cool/dry downdraft.Below entrainment region,the warm/moist updrafts and cool/dry downdrafts are,respectively,positively and negatively buoyant and contribute most to total fluxes and variances.Evaporative cooling has important effect on the structure and thermodynamic properties of thermals in stratus-topped boundary layer.     

Resolved Versus Parametrized Boundary-Layer Plumes. Part I: A Parametrization-Oriented Conditional Sampling in Large-Eddy Simulations

A conditional sampling based on the combination of a passive tracer emitted at the surface and thermodynamic variables is proposed to characterise organized structures in large-eddy simulations of cloud-free and cloudy boundary layers. The sampling is evaluated against more traditional sampling of dry thermals or clouds. It enables the characterization of convective updrafts from the surface to the top of the boundary layer (or the top of cumulus clouds), describing in particular the transition from the sub-cloud to the cloud layer, and retrieves plume characteristics, entrainment and detrainment rates, variances and fluxes. This sampling is used to analyze the contribution of boundary-layer thermals to vertical fluxes and variances.     

Bivariate conditional sampling of buoyancy flux during an intense cold-air outbreak

Buoyancy fluxes in the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) for the cloud street regime, observed during the Genesis of Atlantic Lows Experiment (GALE), have been analyzed using the technique of joint frequency distribution. For the lower half of the MABL, the results suggest that the buoyancy flux is mainly generated by the rising thermals and the sinking compensating ambient air, and is mainly consumed by the entrainment and detrainment of thermals, penetrative convection, and the entrainment from the MABL top.The results are compared to those from previous studies of mesoscale cellular convection (Air-Mass Transformation Experiment, AMTEX), the dry convective boundary layer, and the trade-wind MABL. For the lower MABL, the quadrant buoyancy fluxes, fractional coverages, and flux intensities are in good agreement with those of mesoscale cellular convection (AMTEX) and the dry convective boundary layer. The results suggest that, if the buoyancy flux is primarily driven by the temperature flux, the physical processes for generating buoyancy flux mentioned above are about the same for the lower boundary layers over land and ocean, even with different convective regimes. For the trade-wind MABL, the buoyancy flux is mainly driven by the moisture flux; the quadrant flux intensities are stronger than those of the other three studies except for the buoyant updrafts (thermals). These results suggest that the entrainment and detrainment of thermals are more effective in the trade-wind MABL than in the boundary layers driven by the temperature flux.Scale analysis of the buoyancy flux is in good agreement with that of AMTEX. For the lower half of the MABL, the buoyancy flux is mainly generated by the intermediate scale (200 m to 2 km), which includes the dominant convective thermals in the surface layer and the mixed layer. The scale smaller than 200 m is important only in the surface layer. The scale larger than 2 km, which includes the roll vortices, increases its significance upward. While most of the positive and negative fluxes are associated with the updrafts for the intermediate scale, the downdrafts are as important as updrafts for the larger scale.ST Systems Corporation, Lanham, MD, 20706, U.S.A.     

不稳定能量参数在一次强对流天气数值模拟中的应用

采用常规观测资料和1°×1°NCEP／NCAP再分析资料,运用MM5V3．7高分辨率中尺度数值模式,对2004年7月12日17时30分前后发生在江苏南通的一次强中尺度对流系统（龙卷）进行模拟分析。结果表明：南通上空处在上干冷、下暖湿的大气不稳定层结中。干冷空气侵入与边界层暖湿气流强烈辐合,大量能量释放造成了本次龙卷的发生。运用数值模拟结果,计算了最佳对流有效位能IBCAPE、对流抑制能量ICIN、归一化对流有效位能INCAPE、能量—螺旋度指数,刚和强对流天气威胁指数／SWEAT等不稳定能量参数。通过分析上述参数的空间分布和在南通上空的时间分布,发现它们对强对流天气的发生有一定反映。     

Airborne measurements of turbulent trace gas fluxes and analysis of eddy structure in the convective boundary layer over complex terrain

Using the new high-frequency measurement equipment of the research aircraft DO 128, which is described in detail, turbulent vertical fluxes of ozone and nitric oxide have been calculated from data sampled during the ESCOMPTE program in the south of France. Based on airborne turbulence measurements, radiosonde data and surface energy balance measurements, the convective boundary layer (CBL) is examined under two different aspects. The analysis covers boundary-layer convection with respect to (i) the control of CBL depth by surface heating and synoptic scale influences, and (ii) the structure of convective plumes and their vertical transport of ozone and nitric oxides. The orographic structure of the terrain causes significant differences between planetary boundary layer (PBL) heights, which are found to exceed those of terrain height variations on average. A comparison of boundary-layer flux profiles as well as mean quantities over flat and complex terrain and also under different pollution situations and weather conditions shows relationships between vertical gradients and corresponding turbulent fluxes. Generally, NO_x transports are directed upward independent of the terrain, since primary emission sources are located near the ground. For ozone, negative fluxes are common in the lower CBL in accordance with the deposition of O₃ at the surface.The detailed structure of thermals, which largely carry out vertical transports in the boundary layer, are examined with a conditional sampling technique. Updrafts mostly contain warm, moist and NO_x loaded air, while the ozone transport by thermals alternates with the background ozone gradient. Evidence for handover processes of trace gases to the free atmosphere can be found in the case of existing gradients across the boundary-layer top. An analysis of the size of eddies suggests the possibility of some influence of the heterogeneous terrain in mountainous area on the length scales of eddies.     

沙漠-绿洲大气边界层结构的数值模拟

利用美国NCAR新版中尺度MM5V3．6非静力平衡模式,采用三重嵌套的模拟方法,模拟研究了沙漠绿洲的环流及边界层特征。结果表明：在没有西风气流背景的影响下,绿洲沙漠环流和大气边界层结构是对称的。沙漠绿洲改变了原有沙漠地区环流结构及温、湿场的分布,绿洲上空大气下沉,沙漠上空大气上升,从而产生了绿洲上空大气冷干,沙漠上空大气暖湿的边界层特征。绿洲边缘形成了由干到湿的强湿度梯度带围绕着绿洲,起到了保护绿洲的作用。在有西风背景气流的影响下,绿洲沙漠环流和大气边界层结构是非对称的。但是,西风背景气流的存在可以破坏绿洲系统对称的环流结构,不利于绿洲系统的稳定发展。     

The role of thermals in the convective boundary layer

Detailed measurements of the structure of thermals throughout the convective boundary layer were obtained from the NCAR Electra aircraft over the ocean during the Air Mass Transformation Experiment (AMTEX). Humidity was used as an indicator of thermals. The variables were first high-pass filtered with a 5 km cutoff digital filter to eliminate mesoscale variations. Segments of the 5 min (30 km length) horizontal flight legs with humidity greater than half the standard deviation of humidity fluctuations for that leg were defined as thermals. This was found to be a better indicator of thermals than temperature in the upper part of the boundary layer since the temperature in a thermal is cooler than its environment in the upper part of the boundary layer. Using mixed-layer scaling, the normalized length and number of thermals were found to scale with the 1/3 and -1/3 powers, respectively, of normalized height, while vertical velocity and temperature scaled according to similarity predictions in the free convection region of the surface layer. The observational results presented here extend throughout the entire mixed layer. Using these results in the equation for mean updraft velocity of a field of thermals, the sum of the vertical pressure gradient and edge-effect terms can be estimated. This residual term is found to be important throughout most of the boundary layer. The magnitude of the divergence of vertical velocity variance within a thermal is found to be larger than the magnitude of the mean updraft velocity term throughout most of the mixed layer.Part of this work was completed while visiting Risø National Laboratory, Denmark.The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.     

冷锋前浙江大范围冰雹天气的发生条件

本文选取了7个实例,分析冷锋前浙江大范围冰雹天气的发生条件。大范围冰雹天气发生前,必须具有较大的位势不稳定能和较强的边界层辐合。强的风速垂直切变并不是必要条件。冰雹天气发生前6—12小时,对流层中、下部不一定有大尺度辐合上升。冰雹发生之前,边界层内暖湿空气十分强盛,而中层的冷干空气活动一般并不明显。因此不稳定能的形成主要是由于边界层内暖湿平流的结果。冰雹天气过程的水汽通量散度,与一般暴雨过程不同,前者的水汽辐合几乎全部集中在边界层内。冷锋位置、边界层辐合线、潜在不稳定度和对流不稳定度这四个因子相结合,可能是预报冷锋前有无大范围冰雹天气发生的有效信息。     

下曳气流在积云对流中的作用

利用国家气象中心高分辨率有限区域业务预报模式（ＨＬＡＦＳ）对有无下曳气流的积云参数化方案进行了对比试验,通过对积云内容各物理量及大尺度物理量场的诊断分析研究下曳气流对积云对流发生发展的作用以及对大尺度热力,动力场的影响。结果表明：（１）下曳气流具有湿冷的特征,主要出现在强对流时段时流层中下层;（２）下曳气流的引入,促进了模式中强积云对流的发生发展,并在更高更多的空间层次上更强地加热及干化环境大气,     

大连地区大雾特征

选取2007年2月和4月出现在大连及其沿海地区的两次大雾过程, 采用GTS1型数字式探空仪探测资料、常规观测资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料, 对其环境场、热力和动力作用等进行诊断分析。结果表明:大雾期间, 中高纬度地区高空纬向暖干气流和对流层中下层西南暖湿气流, 为大雾形成提供了有利的水汽和风场条件。低层大气稳定层结的建立及暖干空气与雾层的上下叠置, 有利于大雾的维持。黄渤海的海温作用使冬季地面冷高压进一步增温变性, 有利于辐射雾形成发展, 使春季的暖气团冷却凝结, 有利于平流冷却雾的生成维持。伴有冷平流东移南下的偏北风是促使持续大雾消散的动力因子。     

Observations of the Early Evening Boundary-Layer Transition Using a Small Unmanned Aerial System

The evolution of the lower portion of the planetary boundary layer is investigated using the Small Multifunction Research and Teaching Sonde (SMARTSonde), an unmanned aerial vehicle developed at the University of Oklahoma. The study focuses on the lowest 200 m of the atmosphere, where the most noticeable thermodynamic changes occur during the day. Between October 2010 and February 2011, a series of flights was conducted during the evening hours on several days to examine the vertical structure of the lower boundary layer. Data from a nearby Oklahoma Mesonet tower was used to supplement the vertical profiles of temperature, humidity, and pressure, which were collected approximately every 30?min, starting 2 h before sunset and continuing until dusk. From the profiles, sensible and latent heat fluxes were estimated. These fluxes were used to diagnose the portion of the boundary layer that was most affected by the early evening transition. During the transition period, a shallow cool and moist layer near the ground was formed, and as the evening progressed the cooling affected an increasingly shallower layer just above the surface.     

气旋冷暖区暴雨对比分析

利用常规资料及MM5的模拟分析结果，对山东两次气旋影响产生不同暴雨落区的天气过程进行了对比分析。研究了气旋冷区和暖区暴雨的高低空系统配置、相当位温的水平及垂直分布、垂直运动及散度的垂直分布。结果表明：冷区暴雨具有明显后倾结构和较强斜压锋区，暴雨出现在850hPa θe暖湿舌后部密集区，其垂直运动沿锋面大范围抬升，动力条件更强；而暖区暴雨高低空系统重合，暴雨出现在850hPa θe暖湿舌里。这些特征可为暴雨落区预报提供参考。     

Observations and Large-Eddy Simulations of Entrainment in the Sheared Sahelian Boundary Layer

At the top of the planetary boundary layer, the entrainment of air, which incorporates dry and warm air from the free troposphere into the boundary layer, is a key process for exchanges with the free troposphere since it controls the growth of the boundary layer. Here, we focus on the semi-arid boundary layer where the entrainment process is analyzed using aircraft observations collected during the African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis experiment and large-eddy simulations. The role of the entrainment is specifically enhanced in this region where very large gradients at the planetary boundary-layer top can be found due to the presence of the moist, cold monsoon flow on which the dry, warm Harmattan flow is superimposed. A first large-eddy simulation is designed based on aircraft observations of 5 June 2006 during the transition period between dry conditions and the active monsoon phase. The simulation reproduces the boundary-layer development and dynamics observed on this day. From this specific case, sensitivity tests are carried out to cover a range of conditions observed during seven other flights made in the same transition period in order to describe the entrainment processes in detail. The combination of large-eddy simulations and observations allows us to test the parametrization of entrainment in a mixed-layer model with zero-order and first-order approximations for the entrainment zone. The latter representation of the entrainment zone gives a better fit with the conditions encountered in the Sahelian boundary layer during the transition period because large entrainment thicknesses are observed. The sensitivity study also provides an opportunity to highlight the contribution of shear stress and scalar jumps at the top of the boundary layer in the entrainment process, and to test a relevant parametrization published in the recent literature for a mixed-layer model.     

Boundary-layer evolution and nocturnal inversion dispersal—Part II

Observations from an instrumented aircraft are used to study the small-scale structure of turbulence and convection in well-mixed boundary layers and the erosion processes in the nocturnally-formed inversions above them. The ways in which turbulence statistics for temperature, humidity and vertical velocity scale with height in the mixed layer are compared with the results of a three-dimensional model by Deardorff (1974a, b), and agreement is found in many aspects. Conditional sampling enables the statistics of thermals and their environment to be considered separately and, in particular, shows that the mode of the vertical velocity in thermals markedly decreases with height in the upper half of the mixed layer. Thermals may be recognized equally readily by either their excess of temperature or humidity. Transfers of heat and moisture through the nocturnal inversions influence the structure of the upper region of the mixed layer and there is strong evidence that these transfer processes are turbulent and not organized on scales similar to convective thermals.     

On the structure of convection

Conditional sampling methods are used to investigate the structure of thermals in a dry atmospheric convection layer. Temperature and vertical velocity data obtained from an aircraft flying above the surface layer are analysed. The thermal structure is found to be consistent with free-convection similarity theory.     

中国西天山季节性积雪热力特征分析

利用中国天山积雪雪崩站干、湿雪雪层内每隔5min一次的10层雪温数据,探讨了一次降雪过程后干、湿雪的雪层温度特征,对比分析了干、湿雪的雪面能量平衡方程中各分量的差异。结果表明:(1)整个冬半年积雪各层温度基本<0℃,雪温日变化振幅由雪面向下逐渐减小,积雪深层温度的波峰(谷)值稍滞后于积雪浅层温度极值1～2天。(2)湿雪冷中心的出现时间早于干雪,暖中心的出现时间晚于干雪,太阳辐射对湿雪的穿透深度大于干雪。(3)雪层温度振幅变化与能量吸收随雪深都呈指数衰减分布。积雪密度越大,吸收系数越小,穿透深度越大。(4)干雪雪面的感热通量和潜热通量几乎都为负值,积雪积累。湿雪雪面的潜热通量与感热通量方向相反,互相抵消,所以净辐射是导致湿雪消融的主要因素。     

陆地上爆发性温带气旋的暖锋后弯结构分析

温带气旋的暖锋后弯是20世纪80年代末从北大西洋爆发性气旋现场科学试验中发现的一个重要科学成果, 修正了 经典温带锋面气旋模式中锢囚锋的概念。在地球同步卫星云图上, 经常可以观测到欧亚大陆的气旋云系也存在与暖锋后弯 非常类似的演变过程。利用常规的高空、地面观测, NCEP的1°×1°再分析场和FY-2E 水汽图像等资料, 通过分析2012年5 月11-14日一次蒙古气旋强烈发展的结构特征, 揭示了在内陆地区温带气旋发展过程中若暖锋锋区增强而冷锋锋区减弱, 则 该类气旋也存在暖锋后弯和暖核被隔离的事实。分析结果还表明该类蒙古气旋中暖核强度虽不如海洋爆发性气旋, 但其厚 度可伸展到600hPa,在对流层低层850hPa低压中心附近不仅有暖核, 而且存在与暖核近乎重合的干中心, 但干暖中心与气 旋中心并不重合。另外, 单站探空及垂直剖面的分析显示, 在后弯的暖锋锋区附近存在强的湿上升运动, 干暖核内以干空气 和下沉运动为主, 在边界层内后弯暖锋锋区比冷锋锋区强;在冷锋后部的干输送带中对流层中高层锋区明显, 且总体上相对 湿度较小、上升运动微弱, 最显着的干区位于锋区上方下沉的暖空气中。     

冷涡背景下一次强对流过程的卫星水汽图像特征

将卫星水汽图像与高层动力场进行叠合分析,可为强对流天气监测预报提供有价值的信息。将卫星水汽图像和大气动力场相结合,对山东省一次冷涡背景下连续强对流过程的环境特征进行分析。结果表明,冷涡云系具有非对称结构特征;冷涡东南侧的暖湿对流与涡后动力干带入侵时爆发的暗区新生对流,这两个阶段的热、动力不稳定增长机制有所不同。与高位涡、急流相伴的水汽暗带是对流层上部的动力活跃区。当涡后具有高位涡特征的动力干带入侵时,高层动力活跃区叠加于低层暖湿平流区上空,促使对流爆发。卫星水汽图像体现了冷涡发展不同阶段高空动力强迫的差异。水汽图像上动力干带色调变暗,干湿边界锐化的特征,与高层位涡和高空急流增强有关。通过卫星水汽图像上连续时次的干湿对比,可以跟踪识别这些高层特征,进而判断高层动力特征的演变,为深厚湿对流环境条件的诊断提供依据。     

夏季青海湖局地环流及大气边界层特征的数值模拟

使用美国NCAR新版MM5V3.6非静力模式,采用两重嵌套方法,模拟了青海湖区域的局地环流及大气边界层特征,并且与无湖试验进行了比较。结果表明:白天由于青海湖的存在有很好的降温作用,夜晚则有保温效应,表现出明显的冷(暖)湖效应;青海湖对感热和潜热的影响有很强的日变化,白天湖面感热、潜热都小,夜间情况相反,这使得白天青海湖是冷干岛,夜间是暖湿岛;青海湖使得白天湖面边界层顶低,陆面边界层顶高,夜间相反。这样的边界层顶高度和温度、地面能量通量相配合,形成了一个很好的保护机制,对青海湖的水土保持和生态环境的维持有正效应;青海湖使得湖面上空大气下沉,陆面上空大气上升,从而产生了湖面上空大气冷干,陆面上空大气暖湿的边界层特征;青海湖边缘的陆面形成的较大的湿气柱围绕着湖面,起到了保护湖面的作用;青海湖低空白天有明显的湖面向四周的辐散气流,而夜间则为从北偏东方向来的陆风。     

2018年春节期间琼州海峡持续性大雾监测分析

2018年春节期间,琼州海峡持续6 d（2月15—20日）有雾,最低能见度不足200 m。主要从气象卫星监测上分析此次琼州海峡持续性海雾的时间演变特征,并从大气海洋条件分析形成持续性海雾的原因,得出如下结论：1）2018年2月华南东侧西太平洋海面温度较常年同期偏高,有3个暖海面温度距平中心,为持续性大雾提供暖湿气流;2）此次持续性大雾过程琼州海峡位于均压场,但西南低涡起着辅助的作用,致使海洋性的南风在边界层抵御了干燥的大陆性气团,利于维持边界层的湿度;3）低层流场为暖湿气流,925 hPa近地面湿层上空有一个干中心维持,“上干下湿”的湿度层结有利于海雾维持和向上发展形成一定厚度的海雾;4）低云增加和弱降水是使18日全天海雾得以维持的重要因素。