台风莫拉菲(2009)登陆前后电荷结构演变的模拟研究

利用中尺度起电放电模式以及卫星和闪电定位等观测资料,对比分析了台风莫拉菲（2009）在登陆前后以及衰亡阶段的电荷结构及形成。结果表明：莫拉菲在登陆前存在近海加强过程,加强中逐渐形成清晰的台风眼并伴随眼壁区闪电活动的多发。眼壁区对流在近海加强阶段呈现正的三极性电荷结构,主负电荷区位于-25℃——10℃层,其上下各有一个正电荷区。而在台风达到最大强度后呈现负的偶极性电荷结构,仅存在云中部的负电荷区和下部的正电荷区。眼壁区对流的电荷结构同台风强度变化密切相关而不受登陆直接影响。在台风发展的不同阶段,外螺旋雨带对流主要表现为正的三极性或正的偶极性电荷结构,之前的研究一般认为外雨带对流只能呈现正的偶极性电结构。外雨带三极性电结构的形成可以类似于眼壁区三极性结构的形成,也存在其他形成机制,即在霰粒子与冰晶组成的正偶极性电荷结构下存在一个由雹粒子组成的正电荷区,从而形成正的三极性电荷结构。台风衰亡阶段对流主要表现负的偶极性电荷结构,对流活动较弱,类似于陆地雷暴消散阶段的特性。不同类型的电荷结构所对应对流的相对强度也在文内进行了讨论。     

放电后电荷重置对雷暴云电荷结构及闪电行为的影响

为探究放电后电荷重置对雷暴云电过程的影响,在已有的三维雷暴云起、放电模式中分别加入两种不同的电荷重置方案:一种是植入法即放电后闪电通道上的感应电荷与原空间电荷叠加(简称ZR方案);另一种是中和法即放电后直接按一定比例降低闪电通道处的空间电荷浓度(简称ZH方案)。利用长春一次探空个例进行敏感性试验,发现放电后重置方式的不同会导致闪电特征存在明显差异:1)ZR方案下的云闪发生率比ZH方案下的云闪发生率少。闪电放电后ZR方案在云中植入异极性电荷,对雷暴云中电荷的中和量比ZH方案多,摧毁云中电场的能力更强;2)ZR方案下的正、负地闪发生率均比ZH方案多。相对于ZH方案,ZR方案中主正电荷区的分布范围大于主负电荷区,导致其出现了更多的正地闪;ZR方案中的云顶屏蔽层与主正电荷区的混合程度高,混合时间长,导致ZR方案在主正电荷区与主负电荷区之间触发了更多的负地闪;3)ZR方案下的闪电通道长度比ZH方案下的闪电通道长度短。ZR方案在云中植入异极性电荷,导致云中难以形成大范围同极性电荷堆,闪电通道传播局限在一对较小的异极性电荷堆内,而ZH方案不改变云中电荷分布,存在大范围同极性电荷堆,闪电通道传播范围较大。     

云下部正电荷区与负地闪预击穿过程

三维雷电观测系统LMA(Lightning Mapping Array)是最近发展起来的基于GPS时钟同步的闪电VHF辐射源到达时间差(TOA)定位技术,能以很高的时间分辨率(50 ns)和空间定位精度(50-100 m)展现闪电放电发展过程的三维时空分布,揭示雷暴中电荷结构及其与放电过程的关系.文中利用三维雷电VHF辐射源观测资料分析了负地闪预击穿过程的时空分布特征,讨论了云下部正电荷区对负地闪发生的影响,其结果表明在首次回击之前存在长时间预击穿过程的负地闪中,预击穿过程是云中部负电荷区与下部正电荷区之间的一种云内放电过程,闪电起始于云中部负电荷区,然后向下发展传输,进入正电荷区后闪电通道在云下部正电荷区水平发展,其放电特征与反极性云闪放电一致,云内放电过程最后阶段的K型击穿激发了地闪的梯级先导,梯级先导穿过云下部正电荷区向下发展传输.云下部正电荷的存在是导致负地闪首次回击之前存在长时间云内预击穿过程的主要原因.     

雷暴闪电活动特征研究进展

从一般雷暴、灾害性雷暴和台风的闪电活动特征以及雷暴闪电尺度特征四个方面对相关研究进行梳理。一般雷暴通常具有正常极性电荷结构,云/地闪比例在3左右(中纬度地区),地闪中正地闪占比为10%左右,负地闪位置往往更集中于对流区。灾害性雷暴倾向具有活跃的云闪,低比例的地闪,易出现反极性电荷结构,正地闪比例偏高。闪电活动与灾害性天气现象之间存在关联性,部分雹暴过程具有两次闪电活跃阶段。台风中大部分闪电发生在外雨带,眼壁/外雨带闪电爆发很可能预示气旋强度的增强以及路径的改变。由闪电持续时间、通道空间扩展所表征的闪电尺度与雷暴对流强度相关。弱对流雷暴或雷暴的弱对流区域可能由水平扩展、垂直分层的电荷分布形态主导,闪电频次低,闪电空间尺度大;强对流雷暴或雷暴的强对流区域可能由交错分布的小电荷区主导,闪电频次高,闪电尺度小。      

闪电放电通道的三维结构特征

通过对闪电VHF辐射源高时空分辨率的三维观测资料的分析发现,无论云闪还是地闪其时间和空间分布特征可表明雷暴中的基本电荷结构。云内闪电放电不仅发生在上部正电荷区与中部主负电荷区之间,也同样会在中部主负电荷区与下部正电荷区之间发生,除极性相反之外,其它特征是一致的。云闪过程在最初的10一20ms内垂直向上(正常极性)或向下(反极性)发展,之后转为水平方向的传输。在正电荷区辐射点较多,闪电通道清晰;在负电荷区辐射点较少,且从闪电的起始位置以一种倒退的方式水平延伸闪电通道。云闪中的K型击穿不仅发生在闪电的后期,而且还发生在活跃期,并不时发展到正电荷区而触发新的闪电分叉。负地闪首次回击之前的梯级先导过程辐射较强,继后回击前的直窜先导的辐射较弱。回击之间闪电在云内水平发展,通道以细小的分叉为主要特征,其间不时有没有到地的企图先导过程发生。正地闪的先导过程基本没有可探测到的辐射点,在回击之前有一段云内过程,回击之后有更长的云内过程发展,其闪电通道不像负地闪那样精细,在回击之后的最初阶段辐射点较少,而在通道的顶端辐射点反而较多。正负地闪的发生发展特征有很大的不同,表明正、负极性的电荷击穿及传输过程的机制存在明显差异。     

甘肃中川地区云闪的多站同步观测及雷暴的等效电荷结构

利用甘肃中川地区GPS同步的7个测站闪电慢天线获得的电场变化资料, 通过非线性最小二乘法对2004年8月20日一次雷暴过程中的10次云闪进行了拟合分析, 估算了其所中和的电矩、 取向及空间位置等参量。结果表明, 其中5次云闪是雷暴云中部主负电荷区与其下部正电荷区之间的放电, 另外5次是中部主负电荷区与其上部正电荷区之间的放电, 对应的放电中心的海拔高度分别在3.2~5.6 km和6.8~7.7 km, 中和电矩分别约为4.56~61.0 C·km和 1.06~15.9 C·km。发生在雷暴云上部正电荷区与中部主负电荷区之间的闪电所中和电矩较发生在雷暴云中部主负电荷区与下部正电荷区之间的闪电所中和电矩小。结果证实了中国内陆高原地区雷暴云的上部和下部有两个正电荷区存在, 与闪电放电相联系的雷暴云电荷结构可用简化的三极性来代表。     

雷暴云内电荷水平分布形式对闪电放电的影响

为了定量探究雷暴云内电荷水平分布形式对闪电类型和先导传播行为的影响,建立了典型雷暴云电荷结构模型,引入控制电荷水平分布的参数,利用改进的随机放电参数化方案,开展二维高分辨率模拟试验。结果表明:主正电荷区电荷水平分布不均匀且向中心聚集时,产生的闪电类型多为正地闪和正极性云闪,随着电荷水平分布趋于均匀,闪电类型转变为负地闪;主负电荷区电荷水平分布趋于均匀时,闪电类型由负地闪向正极性云闪再向正地闪转变;闪电先导传播特征有较大差异,电荷分布密集不均匀时,先导被束缚在电荷高密度中心,主要在电荷区内发展,当电荷分布单一均匀时,先导能穿出电荷区并水平延伸十几至二十多千米。分析两个电荷区之间的电位分布发现,电荷区电荷水平分布趋于均匀时,位势线向电荷密度中心集中,整个位势阱水平延展,闪电触发点的初始电位值有较大差异,有利于闪电类型和先导传播行为的改变。     

青藏高原东北部地区夏季雷电特征的观测研究

介绍了2002年夏季在海拔2650m的青海东部地区所进行的雷电综合观测实验及初步研究结果。实验中采用了GPS同步的6个站闪电快、慢电场变化和平均电场的同步观测,配合1ms的高速摄像对该地的雷暴电荷结构、闪电放电特征等进行了研究。初步研究结果表明,青海东部的雷暴云当顶时,地面电场既可受云内的负电荷所控制,也可能受正电荷所控制,揭示了雷暴电荷结构的复杂性。同时,闪电特征也存在一定的特殊性,所发生的地闪先导常以多分叉的形式慢速向地面行进,并在地面形成两个或两个以上的接地点;梯级先导的发展速度约为0.8～1.18×105m·s-1。同时在地闪发生之前和之后常有持续时间较长、闪道清晰的云内放电过程发生。高速摄像观测首次发现,在一次云内正电荷控制地面电场的雷暴条件下,云内放电过程呈现出双层结构特征。放电首先从上部负电荷区和下部正电荷之间的地方激发,然后上、下同时发展。在开始阶段只能看到向下的负流光通道,当上、下发展的通道分别到达负、正电荷区时,明亮的的主通道形成。之后放电在下部正电荷区以多分叉的形式水平扩展,下部的水平扩展停止后,主通道上部的放电开始水平扩展,是一种反极性的云内放电过程。     

青藏高原雷暴电荷结构特征及成因的数值模拟研究

利用三维雷暴云动力-电耦合数值模式,通过对青藏高原地区2003年8月13日一次雷暴过程进行模拟,分析了高原雷暴的电荷结构特征并从微物理角度讨论了其主要形成原因。结果表明,高原雷暴以三极性结构为主,在消散阶段电荷结构转变为偶极性,结构整体电荷密度较小,主正电荷区与主负电荷区深厚,下部次正电荷区范围较大,持续时间较长。其中三极性结构主要是由于云内冰相粒子通过非感应起电机制作用形成;后期偶极性构是由霰粒子下落固态降水的增强导致。云内暖云区厚度较小,混合相区域内有效液态水含量较高,对流层顶较低,导致冰晶、雪所在的高度更低,与霰、雹这样的大粒子重合的区域更大,形成了下部范围较大持续时间较长的正电荷区。     

雷暴单体中降水退屏蔽作用和正地闪之间的关系

为了验证雷暴单体中是否会由于降水退屏蔽作用导致正地闪的发生,建立了典型的雷暴云三极性电荷结构模型,利用现有的闪电放电参数化方案,通过改变中负和下正电荷区的高度和电荷密度进行的对比试验,对雷暴单体中降水退屏蔽作用和正地闪发生之间的关系进行研究。结果表明,在雷暴单体中发生降水时,引起的雷暴云中负和下正电荷区高度下降以及电荷密度的减小会使雷暴云中电场和电势的分布发生变化。当中负和下正电荷区的高度降低时,模拟域内最大电场强度降低,最大电场强度处电势增大,最大电场强度处和地面之间电势差增大,使正先导更容易发展到地面形成正地闪。当中负和下正电荷区的电荷密度减小时,模拟域内最大电场强度降低,最大电场强度处电势的绝对值先减小后增大,在电势增大过程中最大电场强度处和地面之间电势差增大,正先导也更容易发展到地面形成正地闪。因此,雷暴单体中降水退屏蔽作用对正地闪的发生是有利的。     

CHARACTERISTICS AND TRENDS OF CLIMATIC EXTREMES IN CHINA DURING 1959–2014

The spatial and temporal variations of daily maximum temperature(Tmax), daily minimum temperature(Tmin), daily maximum precipitation(Pmax) and daily maximum wind speed(WSmax) were examined in China using Mann-Kendall test and linear regression method. The results indicated that for China as a whole, Tmax, Tmin and Pmax had significant increasing trends at rates of 0.15℃ per decade, 0.45℃ per decade and 0.58 mm per decade,respectively, while WSmax had decreased significantly at 1.18 m·s~(-1) per decade during 1959—2014. In all regions of China, Tmin increased and WSmax decreased significantly. Spatially, Tmax increased significantly at most of the stations in South China(SC), northwestern North China(NC), northeastern Northeast China(NEC), eastern Northwest China(NWC) and eastern Southwest China(SWC), and the increasing trends were significant in NC, SC, NWC and SWC on the regional average. Tmin increased significantly at most of the stations in China, with notable increase in NEC, northern and southeastern NC and northwestern and eastern NWC. Pmax showed no significant trend at most of the stations in China, and on the regional average it decreased significantly in NC but increased in SC, NWC and the mid-lower Yangtze River valley(YR). WSmax decreased significantly at the vast majority of stations in China, with remarkable decrease in northern NC, northern and central YR, central and southern SC and in parts of central NEC and western NWC. With global climate change and rapidly economic development, China has become more vulnerable to climatic extremes and meteorological disasters, so more strategies of mitigation and/or adaptation of climatic extremes,such as environmentally-friendly and low-cost energy production systems and the enhancement of engineering defense measures are necessary for government and social publics.     

LOW-FREQUENCY CIRCULATION AND EXTENDED-RANGE FORECAST IN CONNECTION WITH AUTUMN EXTREME HEAVY RAINFALL PROCESS IN HAINAN

Observed daily precipitation data from the National Meteorological Observatory in Hainan province and daily data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis-2 dataset from 1981 to 2014 are used to analyze the relationship between Hainan extreme heavy rainfall processes in autumn (referred to as EHRPs) and 10–30 d low-frequency circulation. Based on the key low-frequency signals and the NCEP Climate Forecast System Version 2 (CFSv2) model forecasting products, a dynamical-statistical method is established for the extended-range forecast of EHRPs. The results suggest that EHRPs have a close relationship with the 10–30 d low-frequency oscillation of 850 hPa zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north, and that they basically occur during the trough phase of the low-frequency oscillation of zonal wind. The latitudinal propagation of the low-frequency wave train in the middle-high latitudes and the meridional propagation of the low-frequency wave train along the coast of East Asia contribute to the ‘north high (cold), south low (warm)’ pattern near Hainan Island, which results in the zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north reaching its trough, consequently leading to EHRPs. Considering the link between low-frequency circulation and EHRPs, a low-frequency wave train index (LWTI) is defined and adopted to forecast EHRPs by using NCEP CFSv2 forecasting products. EHRPs are predicted to occur during peak phases of LWTI with value larger than 1 for three or more consecutive forecast days. Hindcast experiments for EHRPs in 2015–2016 indicate that EHRPs can be predicted 8–24 d in advance, with an average period of validity of 16.7 d.     

AN ATTRIBUTION ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN THE BEIJING–TIANJIN–HEBEI REGION UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Based on the measurements obtained at 64 national meteorological stations in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region between 1970 and 2013, the potential evapotranspiration (ET0) in this region was estimated using the Penman–Monteith equation and its sensitivity to maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), wind speed (Vw), net radiation (Rn) and water vapor pressure (Pwv) was analyzed, respectively. The results are shown as follows. (1) The climatic elements in the BTH region underwent significant changes in the study period. Vw and Rn decreased significantly, whereas Tmin, Tmax and Pwv increased considerably. (2) In the BTH region, ET0 also exhibited a significant decreasing trend, and the sensitivity of ET0 to the climatic elements exhibited seasonal characteristics. Of all the climatic elements, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv in the fall and winter and Rn in the spring and summer. On the annual scale, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv, followed by Rn, Vw, Tmax and Tmin. In addition, the sensitivity coefficient of ET0 with respect to Pwv had a negative value for all the areas, indicating that increases in Pwv can prevent ET0 from increasing. (3) The sensitivity of ET0 to Tmin and Tmax was significantly lower than its sensitivity to other climatic elements. However, increases in temperature can lead to changes in Pwv and Rn. The temperature should be considered the key intrinsic climatic element that has caused the "evaporation paradox" phenomenon in the BTH region.     

ANALYSIS OF “BIMODAL PATTERN” STORM ACTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Storms that occur at the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are of a bimodal pattern, which is different from that of the other sea areas. By using the NCEP, SST and JTWC data, the causes of the bimodal pattern storm activity of the BoB are diagnosed and analyzed in this paper. The result shows that the seasonal variation of general atmosphere circulation in East Asia has a regulating and controlling impact on the BoB storm activity, and the “bimodal period” of the storm activity corresponds exactly to the seasonal conversion period of atmospheric circulation. The minor wind speed of shear spring and autumn contributed to the storm, which was a crucial factor for the generation and occurrence of the “bimodal pattern” storm activity in the BoB. The analysis on sea surface temperature (SST) shows that the SSTs of all the year around in the BoB area meet the conditions required for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). However, the SSTs in the central area of the bay are higher than that of the surrounding areas in spring and autumn, which facilitates the occurrence of a “two-peak” storm activity pattern. The genesis potential index (GPI) quantifies and reflects the environmental conditions for the generation of the BoB storms. For GPI, the intense low-level vortex disturbance in the troposphere and high-humidity atmosphere are the sufficient conditions for storms, while large maximum wind velocity of the ground vortex radius and small vertical wind shear are the necessary conditions of storms.     

Revisiting the Concentration Observations and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Ammonia

正While China’s Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan on particulate matter since 2013 has reduced sulfate significantly, aerosol ammonium nitrate remains high in East China. As the high nitrate abundances are strongly linked with ammonia, reducing ammonia emissions is becoming increasingly important to improve the air quality of China. Although satellite data provide evidence of substantial increases in atmospheric ammonia concentrations over major agricultural regions, long-term surface observation of ammonia concentrations are sparse. In addition, there is still no consensus on     

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AIMS AND SCOPE
Atmospheric and Oceanic Science Letters （AOSL） publishes short research letters on all disciplines of the atmosphere sciences and physical oceanography. Contributions from all over the world are welcome.     

Information for Authors

AIMS AND SCOPE Atmospheric and Oceanic Science Letters （AOSL） pub- lishes short research letters on all disciplines of the atmos- phere sciences and physical oceanography. Contributions from all over the world are welcome.     

INFORMATION FOR AUTHORS

正Aims Scope Advances in Atmospheric Sciences(AAS)is an international journal on the dynamics,physics,and chemistry of the atmosphere and ocean with papers across the full range of the atmospheric sciences,co-published bimonthly by Science Press and Springer.The journal includes Articles,Note and Correspondence,and Letters.Contributions from all over the world are welcome.     

Editorial

As we will soon celebrate the 90th anniversary of the founding of the Chinese Meteorological Society （CMS）,Acta Meteorologica Sinica （AMS）,which was originally named as Bulletin of the Chinese Meteorological Society,has gone through 89 years of development and excitement since her first issue in July 1925.According to archived documents （CMS Editorial Committee,1925）,AMS was founded to report the research findings of Chinese meteorologists,record their recommendations for improving meteorological services,and share their common meteorological interests in order to promote the growth of AMS such that more members could be inspired to conduct atmospheric research and meteorological knowledge would be better disseminated to and benefit the general public.By upholding and carrying forward this purpose,AMS has published many highly valuable scientific papers.Some could be treated as classical articles,which have produced important influences on both domestic and international meteorological communities and the related fields.