Statistical Downscaling for Multi-Model Ensemble Prediction of Summer Monsoon Rainfall in the Asia-Pacific Region Using Geopotential Height Field

The 21-yr ensemble predictions of model precipitation and circulation in the East Asian and western North Pacific （Asia-Pacific） summer monsoon region （0°-50°N, 100° 150°E） were evaluated in nine different AGCM, used in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Climate Center （APCC） multi-model ensemble seasonal prediction system. The analysis indicates that the precipitation anomaly patterns of model ensemble predictions are substantially different from the observed counterparts in this region, but the summer monsoon circulations are reasonably predicted. For example, all models can well produce the interannual variability of the western North Pacific monsoon index （WNPMI） defined by 850 hPa winds, but they failed to predict the relationship between WNPMI and precipitation anomalies. The interannual variability of the 500 hPa geopotential height （GPH） can be well predicted by the models in contrast to precipitation anomalies. On the basis of such model performances and the relationship between the interannual variations of 500 hPa GPH and precipitation anomalies, we developed a statistical scheme used to downscale the summer monsoon precipitation anomaly on the basis of EOF and singular value decomposition （SVD）. In this scheme, the three leading EOF modes of 500 hPa GPH anomaly fields predicted by the models are firstly corrected by the linear regression between the principal components in each model and observation, respectively. Then, the corrected model GPH is chosen as the predictor to downscale the precipitation anomaly field, which is assembled by the forecasted expansion coefficients of model 500 hPa GPH and the three leading SVD modes of observed precipitation anomaly corresponding to the prediction of model 500 hPa GPH during a 19-year training period. The cross-validated forecasts suggest that this downscaling scheme may have a potential to improve the forecast skill of the precipitation anomaly in the South China Sea, western North Pacific and the East Asia Pacific regions, wh     

CMIP5/AMIP GCM simulations of East Asian summer monsoon

The East Asian summer monsoon （EASM） is a distinctive component of the Asian climate system and critically influences the economy and society of the region.To understand the ability of AGCMs in capturing the major features of EASM,10 models that participated in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project/Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project （CMIP5/AMIP）,which used observational SST and sea ice to drive AGCMs during the period 1979-2008,were evaluated by comparing with observations and AMIP Ⅱ simulations.The results indicated that the multi-model ensemble （MME） of CMIP5/AMIP captures the main characteristics of precipitation and monsoon circulation,and shows the best skill in EASM simulation,better than the AMIP Ⅱ MME.As for the Meiyu/Changma/Baiyu rainbelt,the intensity of rainfall is underestimated in all the models.The biases are caused by a weak western Pacific subtropical high （WPSH） and accompanying eastward southwesterly winds in group Ⅰ models,and by a too strong and west-extended WPSH as well as westerly winds in group Ⅱ models.Considerable systematic errors exist in the simulated seasonal migration of rainfall,and the notable northward jumps and rainfall persistence remain a challenge for all the models.However,the CMIP5/AMIP MME is skillful in simulating the western North Pacific monsoon index （WNPMI）.     

Predicting June Mean Rainfall in the Middle/Lower Yangtze River Basin

We demonstrate that there is significant skill in the GloSea5 operational seasonal forecasting system for predicting June mean rainfall in the middle/lower Yangtze River basin up to four months in advance.Much of the rainfall in this region during June is contributed by the mei-yu rain band.We find that similar skill exists for predicting the East Asian summer monsoon index(EASMI)on monthly time scales,and that the latter could be used as a proxy to predict the regional rainfall.However,there appears to be little to be gained from using the predicted EASMI as a proxy for regional rainfall on monthly time scales compared with predicting the rainfall directly.Although interannual variability of the June mean rainfall is affected by synoptic and intraseasonal variations,which may be inherently unpredictable on the seasonal forecasting time scale,the major influence of equatorial Pacific sea surface temperatures from the preceding winter on the June mean rainfall is captured by the model through their influence on the western North Pacific subtropical high.The ability to predict the June mean rainfall in the middle and lower Yangtze River basin at a lead time of up to 4 months suggests the potential for providing early information to contingency planners on the availability of water during the summer season.     

A comparison of regional monsoon variability using monsoon indices

The present study aims to (a) examine meteorological basis for construction of regional monsoon indices and (b) explore the commonality and differences among tropical regional monsoons, especially the teleconnection and monsoon–ENSO relationship. We show that the area-averaged summer precipitation intensity is generally a meaningful precipitation index for tropical monsoons because it represents very well both the amplitude of annual cycle and the leading mode of year-to-year rainfall variability with a nearly uniform spatial pattern. The regional monsoon circulation indices can be defined in a unified way (measuring monsoon trough vorticity) for seven tropical monsoon regions, viz.: Indian, Australian, western North Pacific, North and South American, and Northern and Southern African monsoons. The structures of the tropical monsoons are commonly characterized by a pair of upper-level double anticyclones residing in the subtropics of both hemispheres; notably the winter hemispheric anticyclone has a barotropic structure and is a passive response. Two types of upper-level teleconnection patterns are identified. One is a zonal wave train emanating from the double anticyclones downstream along the westerly jets in both hemispheres, including Indian, Northern African and Australian monsoons; the other is a meridional wave train emanating from the double anticyclones polewards, such as the South American and western North Pacific monsoons. Over the past 55 years all regional summer monsoons have non-stationary relationship with ENSO except the Australian monsoon. The regional monsoon–ENSO relationship is found to have common changing points in 1970s. The relationships were enhanced for the western North Pacific, Northern African, North American and South American summer monsoons, but weakened for the Indian summer monsoon (with a recovery in late 1990s). Regardless the large regional differences, the monsoon precipitations over land areas of all tropical monsoon regions are significantly correlated with the ENSO, suggesting that ENSO drives global tropical monsoon rainfall variability. These results provide useful guidance for monitoring sub-seasonal to seasonal variations of the regional monsoons currently done at NCEP and for assessment of the climate models’ performances in representing regional and global monsoon variability.     

华北夏季降水与哈得孙湾海冰的相关分析

利用195l一2000年全国160站逐月降水资料划分了华北夏季的旱涝年，并分析了该地区夏季降水的气候特征。在分析华北夏季降水与北极各海区海冰同期和滞后相关的基础上，发现哈得孙湾5—8月的海冰与同年华北夏季降水存在很好的负相关。同时发现哈得孙湾关键时段内的海冰与亚洲夏季风指数呈负相关，与8月西太平洋副热带高压的西伸脊点呈明显的正相关，而与8月西太平洋副高的强度呈明显的负相关。此外还发现哈得孙湾海冰多、少年，东亚西风急流有显著差异。结果表明，哈得孙湾关键时段内海冰面积偏大(小)，同年亚洲夏季风偏弱(强)，8月西太平洋副高的位置偏东(西)，强度偏弱(强)，东亚西风急流减弱(加强)。     

The relation of vegetation over the Tibetan Plateau to rainfall in China during the boreal summer

The relationship between vegetation on the Tibetan Plateau (TP) and summer (June–August) rainfall in China is investigated using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from the Earth Resources Observation System and observed rainfall data from surface 616 stations in China for the period 1982–2001. The leading mode of empirical orthogonal functions analysis for summer rainfall variability in China shows a negative anomaly in the area from the Yangtze River valley to the Yellow River valley (YYR) and most of western China, and positive anomalies in southern China and North China. This mode is significantly correlated with summer NDVI around the southern TP. This finding indicates that vegetation around the southern TP has a positive correlation with summer rainfall in southern China and North China, but a negative correlation with summer rainfall in YYR and western China. We investigate the physical process by which vegetation change affects summer rainfall in China. Increased vegetation around the southern TP is associated with a descending motion anomaly on the TP and the neighboring area to the east, resulting in reduced surface heating and a lower Bowen ratio, accompanied by weaker divergence in the upper troposphere and convergence in the lower troposphere on the TP. In turn, these changes result in the weakening of and a westward shift in the southern Asian High in the upper troposphere and thereby the weakening of and an eastward withdrawal in the western Pacific subtropical high. These features result in weak circulation in the East Asian summer monsoon. Consequently, enhanced summer rainfall occurs in southern China and North China, but reduced rainfall in YYR.     

Predictability of the western North Pacific summer climate associated with different ENSO phases by ENSEMBLES multi-model seasonal forecasts

Predictability of the western North Pacific (WNP) summer climate associated with different El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phases is investigated in this study based on the 1-month lead retrospective forecasts of five state-of-the-art coupled models from ENSEMBLES. During the period from 1960 to 2005, the models well capture the WNP summer climate anomalies during most of years in different ENSO phases except the La Niña decaying summers. In the El Niño developing, El Niño decaying and La Niña developing summers, the prediction skills are high for the WNP summer monsoon index (WNPMI), with the prediction correlation larger than 0.7. The high prediction skills of the lower-tropospheric circulation during these phases are found mainly over the tropical western Pacific Ocean, South China Sea and subtropical WNP. These good predictions correspond well to their close teleconnection with ENSO and the high prediction skills of tropical SSTs. By contrast, for the La Niña decaying summers, the prediction skills are considerably low with the prediction correlation for the WNPMI near to zero and low prediction skills around the Philippines and subtropical WNP. These poor predictions relate to the weak summer anomalies of the WNPMI during the La Niña decaying years and no significant connections between the WNP lower-tropospheric circulation anomalies and the SSTs over the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean in observations. However, the models tend to predict an apparent anomalous cyclone over the WNP during the La Niña decaying years, indicating a linearity of the circulation response over WNP in the models prediction in comparison with that during the El Niño decaying years which differs from observations. In addition, the models show considerable capability in describing the WNP summer anomalies during the ENSO neutral summers. These anomalies are related to the positive feedback between the WNP lower-tropospheric circulation and the local SSTs. The models can capture this positive feedback but with some uncertainties from different ensemble members during the ENSO neutral summers.     

夏季亚洲—太平洋涛动与大气环流和季风降水

利用ERA-40再分析资料和数值模拟,分析了在亚洲-太平洋区域的大气遥相关以及与亚洲季风降水和西北太平洋热带气旋活动气候特征的关系,探讨了青藏高原加热和太平洋海表温度(SST)对遥相关的影响,结果表明:亚洲-太平洋涛动(Asian-Pacific Oscillation,APO)是夏季对流层扰动温度在亚洲与太平洋中纬度之间的一种"跷跷板"现象,当亚洲大陆中纬度对流层偏冷时,中、东太平洋中纬度对流层偏暖,反之亦然;这种遥相关也出现在平流层中,只是其位相与对流层的相反.APO为研究亚洲与太平洋大气环流相互作用提供了一个途径.APO指数也是亚洲-太平洋对流层热力差异指数,它具有年际和年代际的多时间尺度变化特征,在1958-2001年亚洲与太平洋之间的对流层热力差异呈现出减弱趋势,同时也有显著的5.5 a周期.APO形成可能与太阳辐射在亚洲陆地和太平洋的加热差异所造成的纬向垂直环流有关,数值模拟进一步表明:夏季青藏高原加热可以造成高原附近对流层温度升高、上升运动加强,太平洋下沉运动加强、温度下降,从而形成APO现象;而太平洋年代际涛动和赤道东太平洋的厄尔尼若现象对APO的影响可能较小.当夏季APO异常时,南亚高压、欧亚中纬度西风急流、南亚热带东风急流以及太平洋上空的副热带高压都出现显著变化,并伴随着亚洲季风降水及西北太平洋热带气旋活动异常.过去40多年来的长江中上游地区夏季变冷与APO有关,可能是全球大气环流年代际变化在该区域的一种反映.APO异常信号可以传播到南、北两极.此外,亚洲-太平洋之间的这种遥相关型也出现在其他季节.     

2008年东亚夏季风异常及其对江淮梅雨的影响

利用国家气象中心站点日雨量资料、NCEP再分析资料和NOAA OLR资料对2008年梅雨前后及梅雨过程中亚洲季风活动、副高及ITCZ的变化、索马里急流和南亚季风活动特征、亚太地区对流和热源分布特征等进行诊断分析,以揭示梅雨期间季风活动特征的成因及其对江淮入梅、出梅及梅雨强度的影响.结果表明,梅雨期间,季风组成成员复杂多变,无一能占绝对优势,各成员的配置均处于一个动态变化过程中,此长彼消,导致了梅雨期间雨带不稳定,是2008年度梅雨偏少的重要原因.ITCZ影响副高的变化,且超前于副高的变化,对江淮梅雨预报有重要的指示意义.6月初ITCZ突然显著增强,是副高北跳、江淮入梅的重要原因;而中旬后期ITCZ再次北抬并伴随台风登陆,直接导致了江淮出梅.6月初,索马里急流爆发,比多年平均偏早,导致阿拉伯海西南气流北涌、印度季风提前爆发,对江淮偏早入梅有一定作用.索马里急流的维持和消长对江淮梅雨的位置和强度也有一定影响.印度季风爆发及其后的变化影响印缅季风槽的北抬和其后的位置变化,并通过改变青藏高原南部和孟加拉湾热源的强度和分布,影响西南季风的东传和梅雨雨带.     

阿拉伯海—南海海温距平纬向差异对长江中下游降水的影响

本文从分析阿拉伯海至南海海温距平场为东暖西冷和东冷西暖两种不同纬向分布型时热带大气环流不同的特征中讨论了该区海温异常对长江中下游梅雨影响的物理过程。指出不同类型的海温距平纬向分布,可能导致印度季风和东亚季风位置和强度不同的变异,并通过这两支季风的相互作用和调整,影响西太平洋热带辐合带、副热带高压和我国降水的分布。     

AN EAST ASIAN SUBTROPICAL SUMMER MONSOON INDEX DEFINED BY MOISTURE TRANSPORT

Using daily NCEP/NCAR reanalysis dataset and observation rainfall data in China for the 1971- 2000 period, a subtropical summer monsoon index has been defined by meridional moisture transport of the total atmosphere column. Results show that the subtropical summer monsoon index defined by the difference of meridional moisture transport between South China and North China can be used to describe the intensity of the subtropical summer monsoon. High (low) index is corresponding to strong (weak) subtropical summer monsoon. And the new index is well related to the summer rainfall over the middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River. In addition, the convergence of moisture transport from the west Pacific via the South China Sea and that from the North China may be responsible for the anomalously excessive summer rainfall over the middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River.     

东亚副热带夏季风指数及其与降水的关系

文中利用1961~1999年NCEP/NCAR的月平均再分析资料和中国160站月降水资料,考虑蒙古中纬度地区和西太平洋副热带地区的大气环流特征定义了一个简单的东亚副热带夏季风指数,研究了该指数与夏季大气环流和中国降水变率的关系,并与其他季风指数进行了比较。结果表明:文中所定义的季风指数表现出明显的长期气候变化趋势,20世纪60~70年代以高指数为主,而80~90年代以低指数为主。该指数不仅能够较好地反映以蒙古为中心的东亚大陆热低压和西太平洋副热带高压的变化特征,还能够指示东亚副热带夏季风的强弱以及中国长江流域降水的异常变化。与西太平洋副热带高压相比,蒙古低气压变化对长江流域的雨带变动有更大影响。当该季风指数较低时,蒙古低压和西太平洋副热带高压偏弱,中国大陆对流层低层盛行异常北风,高层主要盛行异常西南风。而低层的异常北风表示了东亚中纬度地区较强的冷空气活动,这可以使长江流域梅雨锋区的辐合和上升运动加强,造成长江流域降水增加。     

Boreal summer continental monsoon rainfall and hydroclimate anomalies associated with the Asian-Pacific Oscillation

With the twentieth century analysis data (1901–2002) for atmospheric circulation, precipitation, Palmer drought severity index, and sea surface temperature (SST), we show that the Asian-Pacific Oscillation (APO) during boreal summer is a major mode of the earth climate variation linking to global atmospheric circulation and hydroclimate anomalies, especially the Northern Hemisphere (NH) summer land monsoon. Associated with a positive APO phase are the warm troposphere over the Eurasian land and the relatively cool troposphere over the North Pacific, the North Atlantic, and the Indian Ocean. Such an amplified land–ocean thermal contrast between the Eurasian land and its adjacent oceans signifies a stronger than normal NH summer monsoon, with the strengthened southerly or southwesterly monsoon prevailing over tropical Africa, South Asia, and East Asia. A positive APO implies an enhanced summer monsoon rainfall over all major NH land monsoon regions: West Africa, South Asia, East Asia, and Mexico. Thus, APO is a sensible measure of the NH land monsoon rainfall intensity. Meanwhile, reduced precipitation appears over the arid and semiarid regions of northern Africa, the Middle East, and West Asia, manifesting the monsoon-desert coupling. On the other hand, surrounded by the cool troposphere over the North Pacific and North Atlantic, the extratropical North America has weakened low-level continental low and upper-level ridge, hence a deficient summer rainfall. Corresponding to a high APO index, the African and South Asian monsoon regions are wet and cool, the East Asian monsoon region is wet and hot, and the extratropical North America is dry and hot. Wet and dry climates correspond to wet and dry soil conditions, respectively. The APO is also associated with significant variations of SST in the entire Pacific and the extratropical North Atlantic during boreal summer, which resembles the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation in SST. Of note is that the Pacific SST anomalies are not present throughout the year, rather, mainly occur in late spring, peak at late summer, and are nearly absent during boreal winter. The season-dependent APO–SST relationship and the origin of the APO remain elusive.     

热带西太平洋暖池上空对流活动对东亚夏季风季节内变化的影响

本文通过1978—1989年热带西太平洋暖池上空的OLR资料、500 hPa高度场和降水的逐旬资料分析了热带西太平洋暖池上空对流活动对东亚夏季风季节内变化的影响。分析结果表明:在菲律宾周围对流活动强的夏季，西太平洋副热带高压在初夏向北突跳明显，即6月突跳明显，并且往往有两次向北突跳，这使得东亚夏季风降水雨带向北突跳明显，因此，雨带不可能在江淮流域维持；相反，在菲律宾周围对流活动弱的夏季，西太平洋副热带高压在初夏向北突跳不明显，即6月突跳不明显，它长期在江南上空维持，这样，东亚夏季风降水雨带往往在长江中、下     

东亚季风指数及其与大尺度热力环流年际变化关系

将东西向海平面气压差与低纬度高、低层纬向风切变相结合 ,定义了东亚季风指数 ,该季风指数较好地反映了东亚冬、夏季风变化。其中 ,夏季风指数年际异常对西太平洋副热带高压南北位置变化和长江中下游旱涝具有较强的反映能力。分析表明 :东亚夏季风年际变化与印度洋 -西太平洋上空反 Walker环流及夏季越赤道南北半球间的季风环流呈显著正相关关系。在强、弱异常东亚夏季风年份 ,异常的 Walker环流在西太平洋上的辐合 (辐散 )中心在垂直方向不重合 ,高层 ( 2 0 0 h Pa)速度势与东亚夏季风显著相关区域位于西北太平洋上 ,该异常环流的高层的辐合 (辐散 )通过改变低层空气质量而影响夏季 50 0 h Pa西北太平洋副热带高压。采用 SVD分析进一步发现 :与海温耦合的异常 Walker环流在西太平洋上空的上升支表现出南北半球关于赤道非对称结构 ,亚澳季风区受该异常 Walker环流控制。因而 ,东亚季风与热带海气相互作用可直接通过这种纬向非对称的 Walker环流发生联系。     

Variations of early autumn rainfall in the lee side of the Tibetan Plateau

The variability of climate in the lee side of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) often exhibits unique features. In this study, the authors investigate the variations of early autumn rainfall in the lee side of the TP (LSTP). The rainfall amount and number of rain days in LSTP increase from August to September. The center of heavy and torrential rains during September is located in LSTP as well. These unique features are attributed to later withdrawal of the East Asian summer monsoon in the middle and higher troposphere compared to the lower troposphere and stronger South Asian summer monsoon and thermal forcing of the TP. The September rainfall in LSTP experienced strong interdecadal fluctuation, with overall below normal rainfall from mid-1980s to late 2000s, while there was no apparent long-term trend in the August and October rainfall amount. The above normal September rainfall is associated with an anomalous anticyclone over the western North Pacific, a weaker-than-normal ridge around the Lake Baikal, a stronger-than-normal East Asian jet stream, and warmer air over the southeastern TP. The interdecadal decrease in rainfall in September may be caused by the central equatorial Pacific warming, which induces an anomalous cyclone over the western North Pacific. The September anomalous cyclone is stronger and more westward compared to that in August and October, and thus favors the below normal rainfall in LSTP.     

华南6月降水异常及其与东亚—太平洋遥相关的关系

利用1959～2010年共52年的大气环流和降水资料,我们分析了华南前汛期季风降水 (6月降水) 的变化特征,发现6月华南降水与同期EAP (East Asia-Pacific,东亚—太平洋) 遥相关型有显著的相关关系,两者之间的相关系数为0.35.EAP指数为正时,长江中下游以南的地区降水偏多,而长江以北和黄河之间的地区降水偏少.将华南6月降水分为与EAP相关的降水序列和与EAP独立的降水序列,比较了二者所对应环流异常的异同点.结果表明,与EAP相关的降水异常对应着EAP相关型的环流异常分布特征,降水为正异常时,850hPa风场从低纬度到高纬度呈现“反气旋、气旋、反气旋”的异常分布,湿的偏南风和干的偏北风在华南上空交汇,降水增多;而整个淮河流域上空为偏北风异常,导致南风带来的水汽输送减少,降水偏少,因此降水异常呈现偶极子分布.相比之下,与EAP独立的降水正异常对应的环流异常表现为热带西北太平洋上空的反气旋性环流异常,华南地区上空为显著的西南风异常,输送到华南地区的水汽增多,导致降水偏多.     

Diversity of the Coupling Wheels in the East Asian Summer Monsoon on the Interannual Time Scale: Challenge of Summer Rainfall Forecasting in China

Two types of three-dimensional circulation of the East Asian summer monsoon(EASM) act as the coupling wheels determining the seasonal rainfall anomalies in China during 1979–2015. The first coupling mode features the interaction between the Mongolian cyclone over North Asia and the South Asian high(SAH) anomalies over the Tibetan Plateau at 200 hPa. The second mode presents the coupling between the anomalous low-level western Pacific anticyclone and upperlevel SAH via the meridional flow over Southeast Asia. These two modes are responsible for the summer rainfall anomalies over China in 24 and 7 out of 37 years, respectively. However, the dominant SST anomalies in the tropical Pacific, the Indian Ocean, and the North Atlantic Ocean fail to account for the first coupling wheel's interannual variability, illustrating the challenges in forecasting summer rainfall over China.     

东亚副热带夏季风与山西省夏季降水的关系

利用山西省58个台站1960~2009年夏季降水资料和NCAR/NCEP逐月再分析资料,在考虑蒙古中纬度地区和西太平洋副热带地区大气环流特征的基础上,根据海陆气压差建立了东亚副热带夏季风指数,并研究该指数与山西省夏季降水的关系。结果表明:东亚副热带夏季风指数ISSM表现出明显的长期气候变化趋势,20世纪60~70年代以正值为主,而70年代末之后以负值为主。ISSM指数能够很好地反映出蒙古低压和西太平洋副热带高压系统的典型特征。东亚副热带夏季风越强对应着山西夏季降水越多,山西中部、南部偏东的大部分区域属于东亚副热带夏季风控制区,运城盆地、西部高原山地、忻州盆地、大同盆地等属于东亚副热带夏季风西北边缘区。     

青岛汛期降水量与太平洋年代际振荡的关系

基于太平洋海面温度（SST）、大气环流及青岛降水量资料,分析并发现了青岛汛期（6—9月）降水量与太平洋年代际振荡（PDO）指数存在重要联系。当PDO处于冷位相时,西北太平洋区SST偏高,北美沿岸以及热带中东太平洋区SST偏低,西太平洋副热带高压偏弱偏东,脊线偏北,东亚夏季风偏强,青岛汛期降水量偏多,反之偏少。定义了一个新的太平洋SST距平指数SSTI,该指数包含了西北太平洋与热带中东太平洋SST距平反相变化的协同影响,也包含了PDO与ENSO的协同影响。与PDO指数、西北太平洋及热带中东太平洋SST相比,该指数与青岛汛期降水量相关性更好,通常SSTI正指数对应着汛期西太平洋副热带高压脊线偏北,面积偏小、强度偏弱,东亚夏季风偏强,有利于青岛汛期降水量偏多,反之偏少。SSTI指数可作为青岛汛期降水量预测的指示因子。