青藏高原中部土壤热传导率参数化方案的确立及在数值模式中的应用

本文针对模式发展的需要, 在Farouki土壤热传导率参数化方案的基础上, 综合Johansen和Côté的参数化方案, 发展了一个用于青藏高原中部的土壤热传导率参数化方案, 用“全球协调加强观测计划之亚澳季风青藏高原试验计划(CAMP/Tibet)”中那曲布交(BJ)站实际资料对该方案进行了检验, 并将它用于公共陆面模式(CoLM)中, 对青藏高原那曲地区进行了单点数值模拟试验. 结果表明: 在未冻结及冻结土壤中, 新方案比Farouki方案计算的土壤热传导率小, 更接近实测值. 加入新方案的CoLM模式对土壤温度模拟的准确性比原模式有一定的提高.     

沙漠陆面过程参数化与模拟

沙漠地区植被稀疏、干旱少雨,其陆面物理过程具有与全球其它地区显著不同的特点.本文利用巴丹吉林沙漠观测资料,分析和计算了地表反照率、比辐射率、粗糙度和土壤热容量、热传导系数等关键陆面过程参数,建立了适合于沙漠地区的陆面过程模式DLSM (Desert Land Surface Model),并与NOAH陆面过程模式的模拟结果和观测资料进行了比较.结果表明:巴丹吉林沙漠地表反照率为0.273,比辐射率为0.950,地表粗糙度为1.55×10^-3 m,土壤热容量和热扩散系数分别为1.08×10⁶ J·m^-3·K^-1和3.34×10^-7 m²·s.辐射传输、感热输送和土壤热传导过程是影响沙漠地区地表能量平衡的主要物理过程.通过对这三种过程的准确模拟检验,DLSM能够较准确地模拟巴丹吉林沙漠地气能量交换特征;短波辐射、长波辐射和感热通量的模拟结果与观测值间的标准差分别为7.98,6.14,33.9 W·m^-2,与NOAH陆面过程模式的7.98,7.72,46.6 W·m^-2的结果接近.地表反照率是沙漠地区最重要的陆面过程参数,地表反照率增大5%,向上短波辐射通量随之增加5%,感热通量则减小2.8%.本文研究结果对丰富陆面过程参数化方案,改进全球陆面过程模式、气候模式具有参考意义.     

降水条件下的典型干旱区陆面特征模拟验证

利用“我国西北干旱区陆－气相互作用观测试验"在敦煌双墩子戈壁站取得的观测资料及最近的一些研究成果对陆面模式中反照率、相似性函数及地表粗糙度(动量粗糙度，标量粗糙度)3个方面的参数化方案进行了改进，然后对一次典型降水过程的陆面特征及近地层的风、温、湿进行了模拟.结果表明：改进的模式能对降水条件下的干旱区陆面特征进行较好的模拟，其中对辐射、地表温度的模拟相当好，而对能量的模拟虽然还有要改进的地方，但总体结果令人满意；另外改进后的模式对近地层的温度和湿度的模拟也有明显的改善.     

西北干旱区荒漠戈壁动量和感热总体输送系数

利用“我国西北干旱区陆-气相互作用观测试验”, 于2000年5～6月在敦煌进行的陆面过程野外观测实验加强期的观测资料, 依据3种不同方法确定了干旱荒漠戈壁区地气之间动量和感热总体输送系数Cd和Ch. 结果表明: 尽管这3种方法计算的总体输送系数有一定的差别, 但在量级上相当, 平均值比较接近. 此外, 还通过对风向的分析, 剔除了附近建筑物干扰, 得出了典型干旱区荒漠戈壁总体输送系数与总体Richardson数的关系和典型值范围.     

区域土壤湿度模拟检验和趋势分析——以陕西省为例

基于DEM数据和土壤分类、土壤属性、土地利用分类、植被属性和观测气象数据,利用分布式水文模型SWAT(Soiland Water Assessment Tool),对陕西区域进行了土壤湿度模拟和检验.模拟土壤湿度与实际观测土壤湿度的对比分析表明:SWAT较好的模拟了区域土壤湿度的变化特点及其长期趋势,且对多气候类型及复杂地形区域的土壤含水量时空变化有较强的模拟能力;表层土壤湿度在植被状况好的陕南地区和地形性降水明显的秦岭山地等区域量值较大,而深层土壤湿度较大值出现在河流及平原地区;1951～2004年土壤湿度变化总体上不同深度的土壤湿度均呈下降趋势,深层下降趋势较表层表现更明显,秦岭以北地区比以南地区表现更明显;土壤干化趋势的强度深层大于表层,秦岭以北地区大于以南地区,土壤干化(土壤湿度减小的趋势)的范围深层亦大于表层,且多分布于秦岭以北地区.与NCEP和ERA40再分析土壤湿度数据对比分析表明,SWAT模拟的土壤湿度日变化、月和年平均值的变化趋势均优于NCEP和ERA40的土壤湿度变化趋势.     

区域土壤湿度模拟检验和趋势分析 -以陕西省为例

基于DEM数据和土壤分类、土壤属性、土地利用分类、植被属性和观测气象数据, 利用分布式水文模型SWAT(Soil and Water Assessment Tool), 对陕西区域进行了土壤湿度模拟和检验. 模拟土壤湿度与实际观测土壤湿度的对比分析表明: SWAT较好的模拟了区域土壤湿度的变化特点及其长期趋势, 且对多气候类型及复杂地形区域的土壤含水量时空变化有较强的模拟能力; 表层土壤湿度在植被状况好的陕南地区和地形性降水明显的秦岭山地等区域量值较大, 而深层土壤湿度较大值出现在河流及平原地区; 1951~2004年土壤湿度变化总体上不同深度的土壤湿度均呈下降趋势, 深层下降趋势较表层表现更明显, 秦岭以北地区比以南地区表现更明显; 土壤干化趋势的强度深层大于表层, 秦岭以北地区大于以南地区, 土壤干化(土壤湿度减小的趋势)的范围深层亦大于表层, 且多分布于秦岭以北地区. 与NCEP和ERA40再分析土壤湿度数据对比分析表明, SWAT模拟的土壤湿度日变化、月和年平均值的变化趋势均优于NCEP和ERA40的土壤湿度变化趋势.     

2010年春季南极固定冰反照率变化特征及其影响因子

2010年春季至夏季在中山站附近的固定冰面开展了固定冰反照率观测.在春夏过渡期,观测期间的表面反照率呈下降趋势,平均反照率从9月的0.80下降到12月的0.62,整个观测期间的平均值为0.70.雪厚是影响反照率变化的重要因子,融化前期的反照率受表面温度影响较大,干雪期反照率对表面温度并不敏感.降雪可通过增加表面雪厚和减小表面积雪粒径显著增加反照率,云层则可通过吸收入射太阳光中的近红外波段增加反照率,降雪和阴天反照率可比晴天观测平均增加0.18和0.06;吹雪则可通过改变积雪光学厚度导致反照率发生显著变化.受太阳天顶角变化和积雪变性的共同影响,晴天或少云时的反照率在上午随太阳天顶角呈准线性递减,下午则几乎不发生变化;最高值、最低值分别出现在凌晨和下午.本文提出了一组分别表述厚干雪、薄干雪和湿雪反照率日变化的参数化方案,通过太阳天顶角的线性函数隐式考虑进了积雪变性的影响.相比常数反照率方案,该参数化方案能有效提高对反照率日变化的估算能力.     

中国东部春季土壤湿度的时空变化特征

利用中国气象局提供的土壤湿度观测资料和欧洲中期天气预报中心（ECMWF）的ERA-40土壤湿度再分析资料,在仔细比较分析两套资料的基础上,研究了100°E以东中国春季土壤湿度的空间分布特征及其在不同时间尺度上的变化特征,结果表明ERA-40资料能很好的再现中国东部春季土壤湿度的时空变化特征,较好地反映出了中国春季土壤存在东北和西南湿、华北和内蒙古干的地理分布及其年际变化．在整个中国东部地区,春季土壤存在不同程度上的干旱化现象;其中西南地区土壤从浅层到深层都存在—致的变干趋势,20世纪80年代后这种变干趋势变得显著;在东部中纬度地区,浅层土壤湿度具有明显的年际变化特征,没有明显的干化趋势,但深层土壤湿度从1988年以后存在较为明显的干化现象;东北地区浅层和深层土壤也存在较明显的变干趋势,其中浅层土壤在20世纪70年代初以后变干趋势减缓,而深层土壤在70年代末以后的变干趋势加剧．     

土壤热扩散率及其温度、热通量计算方法的比较研究

本文利用绿洲系统能量与水分循环过程观测试验的2005年6月11日至15日在甘肃金塔绿洲中部观测的土壤温度、湿度和通量资料,在分析了观测期间土壤温度、湿度和通量特征的基础上,采用振幅法、相位法、谐波法和热传导对流法计算了5~20 cm土壤层的土壤热扩散率.在此基础上,以深度为5 cm的土壤层为上边界条件,计算了10 cm、20 cm深度的土壤温度和10 cm深度的热通量.结果表明:谐波法能很好地计算土壤温度,10 cm和20 cm深度的计算值相对观测值的标准差分别为:0.21 ℃和0.18 ℃;热传导对流法计算的土壤温度好于振幅法和相位法,但由于忽略了土壤水分通量密度的日变化,该方法用于土壤含水量有明显日变化的浅层土壤时,会出现计算误差.谐波法的计算土壤热通量与实测值最为接近,计算值与实测值的相关系数达到0.868.     

基于卫星遥感资料的中国区域土壤湿度EnKF数据同化

土壤湿度在陆气相互作用过程中扮演着重要的角色,是气候、水文、农业、林业等研究中重要的地球物理参数之一.土壤湿度影响地面蒸散,径流、地表反射率、地表发射率以及地表感热和潜热通量,从而对气候有重要影响,它对大气的影响在全球尺度上仅次于海面温度,在陆地尺度其影响甚至超过海面温度.本文介绍了基于EnKF及陆面过程模型的中国区域陆面土壤湿度同化系统（CLSMDAS,China Land Soil Moisture Data Assimilation System）,以及该系统应用于中国区域陆面土壤湿度同化试验的结果.CLSMDAS包括以下几个部分：1）陆面模式采用美国国家大气研究中心NCAR的陆面过程模型Community Land Model Version3.0（简写为CLM3.0）;2）大气驱动场数据中的降水和地面入射太阳辐射数据来自FY2静止气象卫星每小时产品;3）陆面数据同化方法采用EnKF（Ensemble Kalman Filter）同化方法;4）观测数据包括AMSR-E卫星反演土壤湿度产品以及地面土壤湿度观测资料.利用CLSMDAS对2006年6~9月的土壤湿度同化试验结果的分析表明：陆面模式模拟和同化结果都能比较合理地反映出土壤湿度时空分布,同化的土壤湿度分布与2006年8月重庆、四川发生建国以来最严重的夏伏旱有非常好的对应关系,与发生在9月的湖北东部、广西南部等地的干旱区也有非常好的对应关系.     

基于简化参数方法的蒙古干旱区土壤湿度被动微波遥感

卫星被动微波遥感土壤湿度,是准确分析大空间尺度上陆表水分变化信息的有效手段.美国航天局(NASA)发布的基于AMSR-E观测亮温资料的全球土壤湿度反演产品,在蒙古干旱区的实际精度并不令人满意.本文基于对地表微波辐射传输中地表粗糙度和植被层影响的简化处理方法,采用AMSR-E的6.9 GHz,10.7 GHz和18.7 GHz之V极化亮温资料,应用多频率反演算法,并以国际能量和水循环协同观测计划(The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project)即CEOP实验在蒙古国东部荒漠地区的地面实验资料作为先验知识,获取被动微波遥感模型的优化参数,以期获得蒙古干旱区精度更高的土壤湿度遥感估算结果.分析表明,本文方法反演的白天和夜间土壤湿度结果与地面验证值之间的均方根误差(RMSE)接近0.030 cm³/cm³, 证明所用方法在不需要其他辅助资料或参数帮助下,可较精确地反演干旱区表层土壤湿度信息,能够全天候、动态监测大空间尺度的土壤湿度变化,可为干旱区气候变化研究及陆面过程模拟和数据同化研究提供高精度的表层土壤湿度初始场资料.     

A new surface runoff parameterization with subgrid-scale soil heterogeneity for land surface models

Soil heterogeneity plays an important role in determining surface runoff generation mechanisms. At the spatial scales represented by land surface models used in regional climate model and/or global general circulation models (GCMs) for numerical weather prediction and climate studies, both infiltration excess (Horton) and saturation excess (Dunne) runoff may be present within a studied area or a model grid cell. Proper modeling of surface runoff is essential to a reasonable representation of feedbacks in the land–atmosphere system. In this paper, a new surface runoff parameterization that dynamically represents both Horton and Dunne runoff generation mechanisms within a model grid cell is presented. The new parameterization takes into account of effects of soil heterogeneity on Horton and Dunne runoff. A series of numerical experiments are conducted to study the effects of soil heterogeneity on Horton and Dunne runoff and on soil moisture storage under different soil and precipitation conditions. The new parameterization is implemented into the current version of the hydrologically based variable infiltration capacity (VIC) land surface model and tested over three watersheds in Pennsylvania. Results show that the new parameterization plays a very important role in partitioning the water budget between surface runoff and soil moisture in the atmosphere–land coupling system. Significant underestimation of the surface runoff and overestimation of subsurface runoff and soil moisture could be resulted if the Horton runoff mechanism were not taken into account. Also, the results show that the Horton runoff mechanism should be considered within the context of subgrid-scale spatial variability of soil properties and precipitation. An assumption of time-invariant spatial distribution of potential infiltration rate may result in large errors in surface runoff and soil moisture. In addition, the total surface runoff from the new parameterization is less sensitive to the choice of the soil moisture shape parameter of the distribution.     

Improving hydrologic predictions of a catchment model via assimilation of surface soil moisture

This paper examines the potential for improving Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) hydrologic predictions of root-zone soil moisture, evapotranspiration, and stream flow within the 341 km² Cobb Creek Watershed in southwestern Oklahoma through the assimilation of surface soil moisture observations using an Ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF). In a series of synthetic twin experiments assimilating surface soil moisture is shown to effectively update SWAT upper-layer soil moisture predictions and provide moderate improvement to lower layer soil moisture and evapotranspiration estimates. However, insufficient SWAT-predicted vertical coupling results in limited updating of deep soil moisture, regardless of the SWAT parameterization chosen for root-water extraction. Likewise, a real data assimilation experiment using ground-based soil moisture observations has only limited success in updating upper-layer soil moisture and is generally unsuccessful in enhancing SWAT stream flow predictions. Comparisons against ground-based observations suggest that SWAT significantly under-predicts the magnitude of vertical soil water coupling at the site, and this lack of coupling impedes the ability of the EnKF to effectively update deep soil moisture, groundwater flow and surface runoff. The failed attempt to improve stream flow prediction is also attributed to the inability of the EnKF to correct for existing biases in SWAT-predicted stream flow components.     

黄土高原定西地区陆面物理量变化规律研究

本文利用在黄土高原定西地区长期观测的陆面物理量资料,在分析了土壤温度和湿度等基本特征的基础上,比较系统地研究了陆面辐射分量、能量分量、地表反照率和Bowen比等陆面土要物理量的变化特征,讨论了陆面能量不平衡差额的分布规律,发现黄土高原定西地区陆面物理量特征与其他地医很不同,揭示出的土壤温度日波动向深层的传播规律和8～9...     

Soil moisture variability and scale-dependency of nonlinear parameterizations in coupled land–atmosphere models

Many of the relationships used in coupled land–atmosphere models to describe interactions between the land surface and the atmosphere have been empirically parameterized and thus are inherently dependent on the observational scale for which they were derived and tested. However, they are often applied at scales quite different than the ones they were intended for due to practical necessity. In this paper, a study is presented on the scale-dependency of parameterizations which are nonlinear functions of variables exhibiting considerable spatial variability across a wide range of scales. For illustration purposes, we focus on parameterizations which are explicit nonlinear functions of soil moisture. We use data from the 1997 Southern Great Plains Hydrology Experiment (SGP97) to quantify the spatial variability of soil moisture as a function of scale. By assuming that a parameterization keeps its general form the same over a range of scales, we quantify how the values of its parameters should change with scale in order to preserve the spatially averaged predicted fluxes at any scale of interest. The findings of this study illustrate that if modifications are not made to nonlinear parameterizations to account for the mismatch of scales between optimization and application, then significant systematic biases may result in model-predicted water and energy fluxes.     

Numerical Simulation of the Sensitivity of Summer Monsoon Circulation and Rainfall over India to Land Surface Processes

—The influence of soil moisture and vegetation variation on simulation of monsoon circulation and rainfall is investigated. For this purpose a simple land surface parameterization scheme is incorporated in a three-dimensional regional high resolution nested grid atmospheric model. Based on the land surface parameterization scheme, latent heat and sensible heat fluxes are explicitly estimated over the entire domain of the model. Two sensitivity studies are conducted; one with bare dry soil conditions (no latent heat flux from land surface) and the other with realistic representation of the land surface parameters such as soil moisture, vegetation cover and landuse patterns in the numerical simulation. The sensitivity of main monsoon features such as Somali jet, monsoon trough and tropical easterly jet to land surface processes are discussed.¶Results suggest the necessity of including a detailed land surface parameterization in the realistic short-range weather numerical predictions. An enhanced short-range prediction of hydrological cycle including precipitation was produced by the model, with land surface processes parameterized. This parameterization appears to simulate all the main circulation features associated with the summer monsoon in a realistic manner.     

The scaling characteristics of soil parameters: From plot scale heterogeneity to subgrid parameterization

The variation in soil texture, surface moisture or vertical soil moisture gradient in larger scale atmospheric models may lead to significant variations in simulated surface fluxes of water and heat. The parameterization of soil moisture fluxes at spatial scales compatible with the grid size of distributed hydrological models and mesoscale atmospheric models ( 100 km²) faces principal problems which relate to the underlying microscopic or field scale heterogeneity in soil characteristics.

The most widely used parameterization in soil hydrology, the Darcy-Richards (DR) equation, is gaining increasing importance in mesoscale and climate modelling. This is mainly due to the need to introduce plant-interactive soil water depletion and stomatal conductance parameterizations and to improve the calculation of deep percolation and runoff. Covering a grid of several hundreds of square kilometres, the DR parameterization in soil-vegetation-atmosphere-transfer schemes (SVATs) is assumed to be scale-invariant. The parameters describing the non-linear, area-average soil hydraulic functions in this scale-invariant DR-equation should be treated as calibration-parameters, which do not necessarily have a physical meaning. The saturated hydraulic conductivity is one of the soil parameters to which the models show very high sensitivity. It is shown that saturated hydraulic conductivity can be scaled in both vertical and horizontal directions for large flow domains.

In this paper, a distinction is made between effective and aggregated soil parameters. Effective parameters are defined as area-average values or distributions over a domain with a single, distinct textural soil type. They can be obtained by scaling or inverse modelling. Aggregated soil parameters represent grid-domains with several textural soil types. In soil science dimensional methods have been developed to scale up soil hydraulic characteristics. With some specific assumptions, these techniques can be extrapolated from classical field-scale problems in soil heterogeneity to larger domains, compatible with the grid-size of large scale models. Particularly promising is the estimation of effective soil hydraulic parameters from area averaging measurements through inverse modelling of the unsaturated flow.

Techniques to scale and aggregate the soil characteristics presented in this paper qualify for direct or indirect use in large scale meteorological models. One of the interesting results is the effective behaviour of the reference curve, which can be obtained from similar media scaling. If the conclusions of this paper survive further studies, a relatively simple method will become available to parameterize soil variability at large scales. The inverse technique is found to provide effective soil parameters which perform well in predicting both the area-average evaporation and the area-average soil moisture fluxes, such as subsurface runoff. This is not the case for aggregated soil parameters. Obtained from regression relationships between soil textural composition and hydraulic characteristics, these aggregated parameters predict evaporation fluxes well, but fail to predict water balance terms such as percolation and runoff. This is a serious drawback which could eventually hamper the improvement of the representation of the hydrological cycle in mesoscale atmospheric models and in GCMs.     

青藏高原北部活动层土壤热力特性的研究

利用2003年10月～2004年9月期间高原北部可可西里(QT01)、北麓河(QT02)、开心岭(QT05)、通天河(QT06)等地活动层土壤温度梯度、土壤热通量及土壤水分的观测资料,计算了高原北部活动层土壤的导热率、土壤容积热容量、导温率等土壤热力参数.结果显示,QT02、QT05、QT06三站导热率、导温率夏秋季节较大而冬季较小,容积热容量则相反,表现为秋冬季节大而夏季较小;QT01站导热率表现为春季大,夏季较小;表层土壤粒度较小及较低的土壤湿度是冬季导热率较小的可能原因;冻土的热力特征参量可描述为相应深度的温度、体积含冰量及土壤盐度的函数,土壤含水量是融土热特征参数的主要影响因子;土壤水分含量小于某一临界值时,导温率随土壤水分含量的增大而增大,反之则减小.