不同生态系统CO2通量和浓度特征分析研究

本文利用1993～1994年日本国家农业环境研究所与中国科学院沙漠研究所合作在内蒙古奈曼地区实测的7种不同生态系统（沙丘、轻度放牧草原、中度放牧草原、重度放牧草原、无放牧草原、玉米田和大豆田）的净辐射、土壤热通量、两个高度的CO2浓度、温度、湿度和风速等资料，采用空气动力学方法，计算了CO2通量及其与环境和人为干扰因子的关系，并分析了不同下垫面的光合作用特征. 结果表明：各种下垫面CO2通量的共同特点是：在白天，CO2通量和梯度的输送方向是从大气向植被，在中午（11～13时）输送达到负的最大值； 在夜间，CO2通量和梯度输送方向与白天相反，是从植被向大气，在早晨（3～5时）达到正的最大值. 植被覆盖率及生物量不同的下垫面光合作用强度有明显差异，天气状况对光合作用也有一定影响.     

不同下垫面湍流通量计算方法的比较研究

本文利用1990~1994年在中国内蒙古奈曼市半干旱地区沙丘和植被区下垫面观测的微气象数据,采用变分法、波文比能量平衡方法和空气动力学方法计算了7种下垫面（沙丘、草原、四种放牧强度的草地、玉米田）的湍流通量并进行了比较.结果表明：除沙丘和重度放牧草地外,三种方法计算的湍流通量在大多数时刻是比较一致的,相关性较高,能量闭合程度也较好.在用于计算植被相对茂盛下垫面的湍流通量时,变分法得到的结果更好一些.随着放牧强度的增大,地表生物量、覆盖率和植被高度相应减少,潜热和动量通量相应减小,而感热通量增大.草地等植被茂盛的下垫面能够增加垂直方向的动量输送,增加空气动力学粗糙度,减小风速,阻止地表沙粒的运动和沙丘的起伏,对防止沙漠化能起到较大作用.     

北太平洋对人为二氧化碳吸收的数值模拟

采用一个开边界海盆尺度环流模式研究人为CO2在北太平洋的吸收和分布，并与闭边界模式的模拟结果进行了比较.模拟结果表明，西北太平洋和赤道东太平洋是两个重要的人为CO2汇.使用较大的等密度面扩散系数使得西北太平洋人为CO2通量增大，而赤道海区通量减小（RUN2）.与闭边界模式相比，开边界模式中该两个区域的人为CO2通量都增加了.1800～1997年间，北太平洋共吸收人为CO2 2375GtC(1Gt=1×1015 g, RUN1).副极地海区是人为CO2的一个重要输出区，能输出人为CO2吸收量的38％～54％，而20°N～30°N海区是人为CO2的一个重要贮存区，占整个北太平洋的24％.开边界对于10°N以南太平洋吸收和贮存人为CO2有很大影响.与基于观测资料的估计相比，虽然模式低估了西北太平洋的人为CO2的穿透，高估了东北太平洋的人为CO2的穿透，但总的说来，模式比较好地估计了人为CO2在北太平洋的贮存.     

华北地区冬小麦田水热、二氧化碳和甲烷湍流输送特征的实验研究

本文利用2012年4月30日至5月10日华北地区大气湍流实验资料,分析了冬小麦田下垫面温度、湿度、二氧化碳(CO2)和甲烷(CH4)的湍流统计和输送特征,利用涡旋相关法计算的CH4通量值确定了松弛涡旋累积(REA)法计算CH4通量的经验系数.结果表明,不稳定层结下,温度、湿度、CO2和CH4的归一化标准差随稳定度参数z/L的关系满足-1/3幂次关系.热量、水汽和CO2水平方向的湍流输送和垂直方向的比值与稳定度参数z/L存在一定的相关关系,但CH4没有类似特征.实验期间,感热通量数值较低,潜热通量较高;CO2在夜间表现出微弱的向上输送,其余时段为向下输送,可以认为实验站所在地区是碳汇;CH4的湍流输送整体为向下输送,无明显的日变化规律,可以认为是CH4汇.利用松弛涡旋累积法获取CO2和CH4通量的参数取值分别为0.61和0.30.     

利用MODIS影像和气候数据模拟中国内蒙古温带草原生态系统总初级生产力

温带草原生态系统与大气间的碳交换通量受到降水和土壤水分可利用性的强烈影响,时空变化显著．所以,整合卫星遥感和田间通量观测成为准确刻画中国北方内蒙古温带草原生态系统区域碳循环动态的重要基础．基于涡度相关通量观测系统提供的生态系统与大气间的碳交换通量数据,研究发现：对于内蒙古锡林郭勒温带草原试验站,遥感增强植被指数（EVI）与植被总初级生产力（GPP）的相关关系强于归一化植被指数（NDVI）与GPP的关系．因此,利用基于EVI的植被光合模型（VPM）对该站点的总初级生产力进行了遥感模拟,模型的输入包括增强植被指数,陆地表面水分指数（LSWI）,平均空气温度（勋）和光合有效辐射（PAR）．对比2003年5月到2005年9月的涡度相关通量观测数据和模型模拟结果发现：植被光合模型可以准确模拟研究时间段内总初级生产力的季节动态限（R^2=0．903,N=111,p〈0．0001）;研究时间段内模拟的总初级生产力为641．5g C．m^-2,仅高估了约6％,且植被光合模型模拟效果优于其他生产效率模型（比如：TURC,MODIS-PSN）．因此,引进改进的植被指数（比如EVI和LSWI）,植被光合模型可以成功模拟温带草原生态系统的总初级生产力,可能成为区域碳通量准确模拟的有效工具．     

白洋淀水陆下垫面上行星边界层空间变动研究

利用三维非静力中尺度模式ARPS,对白洋淀地区水陆非均匀下垫面上大气边界层结构及其变动进行了模拟研究.结果表明,晴天弱背景下,白洋淀地区陆地大气比湿高于水域的情况发生在白天大部分时间内,是普遍存在的一种现象,该现象首先出现在近地层,然后不断向高空延伸,与水陆两种不同的下垫面特征密切相关.由于水陆下垫面的差异,导致水域感热和潜热通量全天较小,变化平稳,而陆地日间感热和潜热通量较大,且潜热高于感热.水陆两地近地层湍流运动状态存在较大差异,湍流输送在水陆比湿空间变动过程中起决定性作用.形成的局地环流同样影响着水陆比湿的空间变动,主要表现在环流上下支对近地层湍流发展以及水汽的垂直输送的影响.陆地上空水汽主要来源于土壤植被的蒸发蒸腾,而来自水域的仅占很少一部分.     

内蒙古羊草草原碳交换季节变异及其生态学解析

用涡度相关技术测量了内蒙古羊草草原2003和2004年两个生长季生态系统CO2交换通量.观测表明,两个生长季的CO2通量存在明显差异.内蒙古羊草草原生态系统CO2通量的日变化特征根据其吸收高峰出现的时间可以分为两种,一种具有两个吸收高峰,其特点是在午间出现了碳交换通量的降低,这种现象与植物光合作用的午间降低现象一致;另一种类型是只有一个吸收高峰出现在午间.CO2通量的吸收和排放的日最大值在两个生长季出现的时间有所不同,2003年均发生于7月,分别为-7.4 g·m-2·d-1(白天)和5.4 g·m-2·d-1(夜间),而2004年发生在8月,分别为-12.8 g·m-2·d-1(白天)和5.8 g·m-2·d-1(夜间).2003年128 d的植物生长期内,整个生态系统白天固定了294.66 g CO2·m-2,同时期夜间释放了333.14 g CO2·m-2;在2004年116 d的生长期内白天固定了467.46 g CO2·m-2,夜间释放了437.17 g CO2·m-2.根据两个生长季的观测数据分析表明,在影响生态系统碳交换的生态因子中,水分和光合有效辐射(PAR)是两个重要的生态因子.连续的降雨会引起生态系统碳交换能力的降低;在适宜的土壤水分条件下,决定白天CO2通量的主要是PAR,二者呈双曲线关系;土壤水分胁迫情况下,CO2通量显著低于适宜土壤湿度状况下的CO2通量,且当PAR＞1200 μmol·m-2·s-1时,生态系统出现了光饱和现象;CO2通量明显地被高饱和水汽压差(VPD)所抑制;夜间CO2通量主要依赖于土壤温度与土壤水分有效性的协调作用.     

2001年1月26日高纬磁层顶通量管事件的观测研究

2001年1月26日11:10～11:40UT, ClusterⅡ卫星簇位于午后高纬磁鞘边界层和磁鞘区,此 时行星际磁场Bz为南向. 本文对在此期间观测到的多次磁通量管事件作了详细的研究 ,获得一系列的新发现：（1）高纬磁鞘边界层磁通量管的出现具有准周期性,周期约为78s ,比目前已知的磁层顶向阳面FTE的平均周期（8～11min）小得多. （2）这些通量管都具有 强的核心磁场;其主轴多数在磁场最小变化方向,少数在中间变化方向,有些无法用PAA判 定其方向（需要用电流管PAA确定）,这与卫星穿越通量管的相对路径有关. （3）每个事件 都存在很好的HT参考系,在HT参考系中这些通量管是准定常态结构;所有通量管都沿磁层顶 表面运动,速度方向大体相同,都来自晨侧下方. 通量管的径向尺度为1～2RE, 与通 常的FTE通量管相当. （4）起源于磁层的强能离子大体上沿着管轴方向由磁层向磁鞘运动; 起源于太阳风的热等离子体沿管轴向磁层传输. 通量管为太阳风等离子体向磁层输运和磁层 粒子向行星际空间逃逸提供了通道. （5）每个通量管事件都伴随有晨昏电场的反转,该电 场为对流电场.     

7^Be和210^Pb观测示踪研究瓦里关山近地面O3和CO2浓度变化

根据2002年10月～2004年1月在青海瓦里关山全球大气本底站（101.898°E,36.287°N,3810ma.s.l.）近地面空气7Be,210Pb,O3和CO2的周平均浓度数据,建立这4种组分相邻周浓度差（分别以Δ7Be,Δ210Pb,ΔO3和ΔCO2表示）数据序列,以此示踪研究高层大气向下输送和陆地地表排放这两个过程各自对瓦里关山近地面O3和CO2浓度变化的影响.结果表明,与使用直接周浓度数据的示踪结果相比,浓度差的引进降低了大气气溶胶季节性湿沉降对7Be和210Pb示踪信号的干扰,较清晰地揭示了瓦里关山站近地面O3和CO2各自浓度变化的物理机制.Δ7Be与ΔO3的关系表明瓦里关山近地面O3显著地受到高层大气向下输送影响;Δ210Pb与ΔCO2关系则表明陆地地表排放对近地面CO2浓度变化有着明显的贡献.Δ210Pb与ΔO3关系也反映出地表排放在冬、夏季对瓦里关山近地面O3浓度变化不同的影响,Δ7Be和ΔCO2关系则反映了来自高层大气向下输送在夏季（冬季）是增加（减低）瓦里关山近地面CO2的浓度.根据对7Be和O3的观测,本文推算月平均平流层输送到瓦里关山近地面O3浓度在4月和6～8月为（6.0～8.0）×10-9（体积混合比,下同）,而其余月份稳定在（2～4.0）×10-9;在瓦里关山近地面O3本底浓度的构成中,平流层贡献5～7月份为20×10-9左右,而在其余月份在（12～15）×10-9,总体上相对贡献率为35%～40%.     

洱海湖气界面水汽和二氧化碳通量交换特征

基于2012年涡动相关法取得的洱海湖气之间湍流通量资料,计算了湖面反照率、空气动力学粗糙度和整体输送系数等湖气交换过程的基本物理参数;分析高原湖泊表面动量通量、感热通量、潜热通量和二氧化碳通量的变化特征及其主要的控制因子;采用神经网络法对缺失蒸发量数据进行填补,估算了洱海湖面全年蒸发量。2012年全年蒸发量为（1165±15）mm,大于年实际降水量（2012年的年降水量为818mm）。洱海局地环流在全年范围内较显著;全年主导风向为东南（谷风／湖风）和西北风（山风／陆风）。高原湖泊感热通量通常只有每平方米几十瓦,通常午后感热通量为负值;即湖面向大气输送热量。夏季湖泊大气界面感热通量最大值出现在清晨,与湖气温差的出现时间一致;在白天湖面的有效能量主要分配为潜热通量;湖气温差和水汽压差分别是感热通量和潜热通量日变化的主要控制因子。湖气界面二氧化碳通量除夏季存在弱的吸收外,其余季节（冬季）表现为弱的排放。湖面反照率的季节变化规律与太阳高度角的季节变动有关,同时湖面反照率与水的浑浊度等有关。与实际观测得到的湖面反照率相比,CLM4湖泊模式在冬季低估（夏季高估）了湖面反照率。     

Photosynthetic responses of a humid grassland ecosystem to future climate perturbations

Increases in atmospheric CO₂ concentration not only affects climate variables such as precipitation and air temperature, but also affects intrinsic ecosystem physiological properties such as bulk stomatal conductance and intercellular CO₂ concentration. De-convolving these two effects remains uncertain in biosphere–atmosphere water and carbon cycling. Using a simplified analytical net ecosystem CO₂ exchange (NEE) model, tested with recently collected flux measurements in a humid grassland ecosystem in Ireland, we assess how much projected climate shifts affect net canopy photosynthesis (A) without physiological adjustments and contrast those findings with published field data on physiological adjustments for several grassland ecosystems. Our analysis suggests that the intrinsic grassland ecosystem physiological adjustment of A is about 45 times more important than the resulting climatic forcing shifts from the IS92a scenario (and a doubling of atmospheric CO₂ concentration). Also, our analysis shows that increase in precipitation results in concomitant decrease in the two climate variables—net radiation and vapor pressure deficit, and these decreases have opposite (and almost canceling) effects on A. Implications to afforestation policy and future experimental efforts to quantify the carbon sink from humid grassland ecosystems are also discussed.     

2002年南海季风爆发前后西沙海区海-气通量交换及其变化

利用2002年4月24日至6月20日在西沙海区进行的第三次南海海-气通量观测试验资料,采用涡相关法和TOGA COARE25b版本通量计算方案,计算了西南季风爆发前后海洋-大气间的通量交换,讨论了辐射、动量、感热通量、潜热通量、海洋热量净收支的时间变化特征及其与气象要素变化的关系.结果表明：西南季风爆发前后,太阳短波辐射、海面净辐射、潜热通量和海洋热量净收支变化特别强烈;通量变化受不同环境要素的影响：感热通量与海-气温差呈正相关关系,与气温呈明显的负相关关系.潜热通量与风速、海-气温差及海面水温均有正相关关系,其中与风速的关系最密切.动量通量（τ）主要随风速变化,它与风速（V）的关系可以表示为τ=000185V2-000559V+001248.     

鄱阳湖夏季水热通量特征及环境要素影响分析

气候变化加速了全球水文循环过程,然而,气候变化如何影响水体蒸发及其水热通量交换仍然不清楚.基于涡度相关系统观测鄱阳湖水体水热通量过程,在小时和日尺度分析了水热通量的变化规律及其主要影响因子.研究表明,潜热通量日变化波动剧烈,大部分为正值,变化范围在-50~580 W/m2之间.而感热通量数值较小,变化范围在-50~50 W/m2之间.8月份潜热通量和感热通量均呈波动下降趋势,均值分别为167.4和15.9 W/m2.8月份日平均潜热通量和感热通量之和大于净辐射,这是由于这一时段储存在水体中的热量释放并补充潜热通量和感热通量.小时尺度上潜热通量日变化在相位上与净辐射无显著相关性,而与风速显著相关.在日尺度变化趋势上,8月份日平均潜热通量仍主要受到风速和水温的影响,感热通量则主要受到风速和饱和水汽压差的影响.     

An improved algorithm to estimate the surface soil heat flux over a heterogeneous surface: A case study in the Heihe River Basin

Surface soil heat flux(G0) is an indispensable component of the surface energy balance and plays an important role in the estimation of surface evapotranspiration(ET). This study calculated G0 in the Heihe River Basin based on the thermal diffusion equation, using the observed soil temperature and moisture profiles, with the aim to analyze the spatial-temporal variations of G0 over the heterogeneous area(with alpine grassland, farmland, and forest). The soil ice content was estimated by the difference in liquid soil water content before and after the melting of the frozen soil and its impact on the calculation of G0 was further analyzed. The results show that:(1) the diurnal variation of G0 is obvious under different underlying surfaces in the Heihe River Basin, and the time when the daily maximum value of G0 occurs is a few minutes to several hours earlier than that of the net radiation flux, which is related to the soil texture, soil moisture, soil thermal properties, and the vegetation coverage;(2) the net radiation flux varies with season and reaches the maximum in summer and the minimum in winter, whereas G0 reaches the maximum in spring rather than in summer, because more vegetation in summer hinders energy transfer into the soil;(3) the proportions of G0 to the net radiation flux are different with seasons and surface types, and the mean values in January are 25.6% at the Arou site, 22.9% at the Yingke site and 4.3% at the Guantan site, whereas the values in July are 2.3%, 1.6% and 0.3%, respectively; and(4) G0 increases when the soil ice content is included in thermal diffusion equation, which improves the surface energy balance closure by 4.3%.     

Thermische Energieflüsse an der Wasseroberfläche: Beispiel Sempachersee

Data collected every 20 minutes for 18 months by a meteorological buoy moored on Lake Sempach in Switzerland (maximum depth 86 m, surface area 14.1 km²) are used to calculate different processes contributing to the net heat flux between water and atmosphere. The processes considered are shortwave and longwave radiation, evaporation/condensation and sensible heat transfer. The temporal resolution of the measurements allows the evaluation of the processes occurring on three different time scales: diurnal variations, weather events of a few days and yearly cycles. The heat content of the lake is calculated from quasi-continuous measurements of water temperature at different depths. The yearly amplitude of the heat content is 1100·10⁶ J/m². Short-time variations of the heat flux determined from water temperature analysis agree well with the flux variations modeled using meteorological data. However, the latter generally underestimates the measured net heat flux in the long term. Wind measurements, together with the net heat flux, are used to calculate the Flux Richardson Number and the Monin-Obukov Length. Examples are given to show the predominant influence of the wind on the stratification of the upper water column and thus on the surface water temperature.      

Micrometeorological measurements in Nigeria during the total solar eclipse of 29 March, 2006

The total solar eclipse of 29 March, 2006 which was visible at Ibadan (7.55°N, 4.56°E), south-western Nigeria was utilized to document atmospheric surface-layer effects of the eclipse for the first time in Nigeria. The meteorological parameters measured are global radiation, net radiation, wind speed (at different heights), atmospheric pressure and soil temperature (5, 10 and 30 cm), moisture and heat flux and rainfall. The results revealed remarkable dynamic atmospheric effects. The observations showed that the incoming solar radiation, net radiation and air temperature were significantly affected.There was an upsurge of wind speed just before the first contact of the eclipse followed by a very sharp decrease in wind speed due to the cooling and stabilization of the atmospheric boundary layer. The atmospheric pressure lags the eclipse maximum by 1 h 30 min, while the soil temperature at 5 and 10 cm remain constant during the maximum phase of the eclipse.     

Correcting method of eddy covariance fluxes over non-flat surfaces and its application in ChinaFLUX

Although Eddy Covariance (EC) technique is one of the best methods for estimating the energy and mass exchanges between underlying surface and atmosphere in micrometeorology, errors and uncertainties still exist without necessary corrections. In this paper, we will focus on the effect of coordinate system on the eddy fluxes. Based on the data observed over four sites (one farmland site, one grassland site and two forest sites), the effects of three coordinate system transforming methods (Double Rotation-DR, Triple Rotation-TR and Planar Fit-PF)on the turbulent fluxes are analyzed. It shows that (i) the corrected fluxes are more or less than the uncorrected fluxes, which is related mainly to the sloping degree of surface, wind speed and wind direction; and (ii) pitch angle has a sinusoidal dependence on wind direction, especially in the regular sloping terrain; and (iii) PF method is something like the simplification of TR or DR,and there are not obvious distinctions in correction in sloping grassland and flat farmland, but PF method is not suitable for uneven and irregular forest sites.     

Simulation of crop growth and energy and carbon dioxide fluxes at different time steps from hourly to daily

Understanding the exchange processes of energy and carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the soil–vegetation–atmosphere system is important for assessing the role of the terrestrial ecosystem in the global water and carbon cycle and in climate change. We present a soil–vegetation–atmosphere integrated model (ChinaAgrosys) for simulating energy, water and CO₂ fluxes, crop growth and development, with ample supply of nutrients and in the absence of pests, diseases and weed damage. Furthermore, we test the hypotheses of whether there is any significant difference between simulations over different time steps. CO₂, water and heat fluxes were estimated by the improving parameterization method of the coupled photosynthesis–stomatal conductance–transpiration model. Soil water evaporation and plant transpiration were calculated using a multilayer water and heat‐transfer model. Field experiments were conducted in the Yucheng Integrated Agricultural Experimental Station on the North China Plain. Daily weather and crop growth variables were observed during 1998–2001, and hourly weather variables and water and heat fluxes were measured using the eddy covariance method during 2002–2003. The results showed that the model could effectively simulate diurnal and seasonal changes of net radiation, sensible and latent heat flux, soil heat flux and CO₂ fluxes. The processes of evapotranspiration, soil temperature and leaf area index agree well with the measured values. Midday depression of canopy photosynthesis could be simulated by assessing the diurnal change in canopy water potential. Moreover, the comparisons of simulated daily evapotranspiration and net ecosystem exchange (NEE) under different time steps indicated that time steps used by a model affect the simulated results. There is no significant difference between simulated evapotranspiration using the model under different time steps. However, simulated NEE produces large differences in the response to different time steps. Therefore, the accurate calculation of average absorbed photosynthetic active radiation is important for the scaling of the model from hourly steps to daily steps in simulating energy and CO₂ flux exchanges between winter wheat and the atmosphere. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exchange flux of total gaseous mercury between air and natural water surfaces in summer season

The exchanges of mercury between surface and air are of significance in the biogeochemical cycling of Hg in the environment, but there are still few reliable data on air/surface exchange in aquatic systems. Field measurement campaigns over seawater surface at Kristineberg Marine Research Station (KMRS) and over Hovg?rds?n River surface at Knobesholm in southwestern Sweden were conducted to measure mercury flux using a dynamic flux chamber technique coupled with automatic mercury vapor-phase analyzers. Both sites show net emissions during summer time. Mercury fluxes measured over both river and seawater surfaces exhibit a consistently diurnal pattern with maximum fluxes during the daytime period and minimum fluxes during the nighttime period. At freshwater site, mercury flux is strongly correlated with the intensity of net solar radiation, and negatively correlated with relative humidity. A typical exponential relationship between mercury flux and water temperature was observed at freshwater measurement site. At seawater site, a strong correlation between mercury flux and intensity of solar radiation was obtained. The driving force of mercury emission from water surface to air is the super-saturation of dissolved gaseous mercury in aqueous phase.