Propagation of a subglacial flood wave during the initiation of a jökulhlaup

Abstract

Observations from the jökulhlaup from Grímsvötn in Vatnajökull, south-eastern Iceland, in 1996 indicate that the jökulhlaup was initiated by the movement of a localised pressure wave that travelled 50 km in 10 h from Grimsvötn to the terminus, forming a subglacial pathway along the glacier bed. Shortly after this wave reached the terminus, the jökulhlaup was flowing at a high discharge through a tunnel that would have needed much longer time to form by ice melting as assumed in existing theories of jökulhlaups. Frozen sediments formed in crevasses and frazil ice on the surface of the flood waters indicate the flow of supercooled water in the terminus region, demonstrating that the rate of heat transfer from subglacial flood water to the overlying ice is greatly underestimated in current theories.     

Aussergewöhnliche Rauschstörung im Anschluss an einen Mögel-Dellinger-Effekt

Zusammenfassung Während der grossen Sonnen-Eruption vom 29.3.60 wurde bei Registrierungen der kosmischen Radio-Strahlung zuerst eine Abnahme beobachtet, der hohe Intensität nachfolgte, die mehrere Stunden anhielt. Die Abnahme entspricht der Mögel-Dellinger-Absorption; es ergibt sich, dass der Radio-Strahlungs-Ausbruch viel länger dauerte als der UV- oder Röntgen-Strahlungs-Ausbruch, der den Mögel Dellinger-Effekt verursachte.

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Summary Recording cosmic radio noise during the large solar eruption of march 29, 1960 a decrease of intensity has been observed at first which was followed by high intensity lasting several hours. The decrease being due to SID absorption it appears that the noise-burst lasted much longer than the uv- or x-ray eruption causing the SID.

     

Evaluation of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Eyjafjallajökull Volcanic Plume Using a Cloud-Resolving Model

The Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption, which occurred on April 14, 2010, caused many environmental, air traffic and health problems. An attempt has been made to demonstrate for the first time that certain improvements could be made in the quantitative prediction of the volcanic ash parameters, and in the accounting of the processes in the immediate vicinity of the volcano, using a cloud-resolving model. This type of explicit modeling by treatment of volcanic ash and sulfate chemistry parameterization, with input of a number parameters describing the volcanic source, is the way forward for understanding the complex processes in plumes and in the future plume dispersion modeling. Results imply that the most significant microphysical processes are those related to accretion of cloud water, cloud ice and rainwater by snow, and accretion of rain and snow by hail. The dominant chemical conversion rates that give a great contribution to the sulfate budget are nucleation and dynamic scavenging and oxidation processes. A three-dimensional numerical experiment has shown a very realistic simulation of volcanic ash and other chemical compounds evolution, with a sloping structure strongly influenced by the meteorological conditions. In-cloud oxidation by H₂O₂ is the dominant pathway for SO₂ oxidation and allows sulfate to be produced within the SO₂ source region. The averaged cloud water pH of about 5.8 and rainwater pH of 4.5 over simulation time show quantitatively how the oxidation may strongly influence the sulfate budget and acidity of volcanic cloud. Compared to observations, model results are close in many aspects. Information on the near field volcanic plume behavior is essential for early preparedness and evacuation. This approach demonstrates a potential improvement in quantitative predictions regarding the volcanic plume distribution at different altitudes. It could be a useful tool for modeling volcanic plumes for better emergency measures planning.     

Long-term impact of the proglacial lake Jökulsárlón on the flow velocity and stability of Breiðamerkurjökull glacier,Iceland

Proglacial lakes are becoming ubiquitous at the termini of many glaciers worldwide due to continued climate warming and glacier retreat, and such lakes have important consequences for the dynamics and future stability of these glaciers. In light of this, we quantified decadal changes in glacier velocity since 1991 using satellite remote sensing for Breiðamerkurjökull, a large lake-terminating glacier in Iceland. We investigated its frontal retreat, lake area change and ice surface elevation change, combined with bed topography data, to understand its recent rapid retreat and future stability. We observed highly spatially variable velocity change from 1991 to 2015, with a substantial increase in peak velocity observed at the terminus of the lake-terminating eastern arm from ~1.00 ± 0.36 m day⁻¹ in 1991 to 3.50 ± 0.25 m day⁻¹ in 2015, with mean velocities remaining elevated from 2008 onwards. This is in stark comparison to the predominately land-terminating arms, which saw no discernible change in their velocity over the same period. We also observed a substantial increase in the area of the main proglacial lake (Jökulsárlón) since 1982 of ~20 km², equating to an annual growth rate of 0.55 km² year⁻¹. Over the same period, the eastern arm retreated by ~3.50 km, which is significantly greater than the other arms. Such discrepancies between the different arms are due to the growth and, importantly, depth increase of Jökulsárlón, as the eastern arm has retreated into its ~300 m-deep reverse-sloping subglacial trough. We suggest that this growth in lake area, forced initially by rising air temperatures, combined with the increase in lake depth, triggered an increase in flow acceleration, leading to further rapid retreat and the initiation of a positive feedback mechanism. These findings may have important implications for how increased melt and calving forced by climate change will affect the future stability of large soft-bedded, reverse-sloped, subaqueous-terminating glaciers elsewhere. © 2020 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd     

Störmer method for a problem of point injection of charged particles into a magnetic dipole field

The problem of point injection of charged particles into a magnetic dipole field was considered. Analytical expressions were obtained by the Störmer method for regions of allowed pulses of charged particles at random points of a dipole field at a set position of the point source of particles. It was found that, for a fixed location of the studied point, there was a specific structure of the coordinate space in the form of a set of seven regions, where the injector location in each region corresponded to a definite form of an allowed pulse region at the studied point. It was shown that the allowed region boundaries in four of the mentioned regions were surfaces of conic section revolution.     

Eine neue Schöpfflasche mit automatischer Boden-Auslösevorrichtung

Summary By this work an apparatus has been described, the design of which, however, is similar to the Friedinger bailing bottle, but its construction has been made in such a manner that by means of an additional measuring rod water tests may be executed in an untroubled and clear state immediately above the water bottom. As a rule the apparatus contains a water volume of 2l and may be combined with a ripping thermometer.      

Consistency of Magnitudes of the Largest Earthquakes of the First Half of the 20TH Century Determined on the Basis of Göttingen and Zagreb Wiechert Seismograms

The magnitudes (M _S , m _bP , m _bS ) of the largest historical earthquakes which occurred in the first half of the 20 ^th century, calculated on the basis of records of Wiechert horizontal seismographs in Göttingen (Germany) and Zagreb (Croatia), are compared with one another, as well as with the magnitudes reported in worldwide catalogues. Systematic trends are observed in the data regarding the temporal stability of magnitude estimations in Göttingen, as well as the apparent non-linearity of the instrument responsle in the case of the Wiechert seismograph in Zagreb. We were unable to clearly identify their causes – possible explanations include effects caused by the interaction of the seismometer's frame and mass, as well as local soil conditions, but nonhomogeneity of the reference catalogues cannot be ruled out. The results indicate that a careful re-examination and cross-checking of the reported magnitude figures for the earthquakes from the first half of the 20th century is required.     

Die Bedeutung der Strömung als ökologischer Faktor

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Kartographie der physikalischen Höhen am Erdkörper

Zusammenfassung Die hohe Bedeutung der Beobachtung eines dichten Schwerenetzes und der kartographischen Darstellung aller Ergebnisse in einem Allgemeinen Kartenwerk der Schwere für die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung jedes Landes wird durch die hier gegebenenKarten der Höhenverhältnisse erneut unterstrichen. Erst durch diesen vielseitigen Zusatz wird das Topographische Kartenwerk der Geometrie in das wesentlich vollkommenere der Physik übergeführt.

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Summary The heights of the Earth offer one of the most difficult problems, when accuracy will be demanded. The problem has been solved hitherto only in connection with single lines of levelling. In the presented paper the problem has been posed on a more general base in connection with cards of the topography and those ofg-anomalies. There has been shown, how to be get different corrections for the heights in form of curves of equal functional sizes, mapped within the original topographical cards. Proposals of several new maps for higher accuracy claims are presented, concerning geophysics, geodesy and hydrography as an addition to the topographical cards: from geometrical ones passing over to physical heights.

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Résumé Les hauteurs de la Terre présentent un des problèmes les plus difficiles par rapport à une exactitude exigée. La solution jusqu'à présent connue concerne seulement le nivellement en des directions linéaires. L'auteur a posé ici le problème à une base plus générale en connection des cartes topographiques et celle des anomalies gravimétriques. On a indiqué pour des corrections différentes la méthode de construire des courves de valeurs fonctionelles égaux, signées au bout dans les cartes topographiques originales. On reçoit ainsi plusieures cartes nouvelles de prétentions élevées concernant la géophysique, la géodésie et l'hydrographie en forme d'une addition aux cartes topographiques: les hauteurs de la géométrie changées par là en telles de la physique.

     

Eötvös torsion balance model E-54

Summary The automatically rotating and photographically recording Eötvös torsion balance, model E-54, is supplied with excellent torsion wires, built into a balance housing of quadruple wall with layers of air and carefully adjusted so that exterior temperature fluctuations do not influence the positions of equilibrium of the balances. The instrument is photographing upon the plate the scale and the reticle so that the positions of equilibrium of the balances may be read simply by means of a magnifying glass, without any measuring. The instrument is simultaneously photographing the numbers of the instrument and station upon the plate, thus the troubles caused by mistakes or faulty notes are eliminated. — A mechanical device accomplishes the exposure and sets aftewards the instrument in rotation. Actual sensitivity of the balances as to the gradient is 0.255×10^–9 CGS=0.255 Eötvös-unit, as to the curvature=0.724 Eötvös-unit referred to one tenth of the scale division, Relaxation time of the balance is 40 minutes. This study proving with original photographs and the interpretation of the same the sensitivity and high reliability of the instrument.     

Über die Anwendbarkeit der Köhlerschen Gleichgewichtskurven für Lösungströpfchen

Zusammenfassung Bei der Prüfung der Voraussetzungen, unter welchen die sogenannten «Wachstumskurven» für Lösungströpfchen abgeleitet wurden, kommt man zu dem Ergebnis, dass diese Kurven nur im Falle des Gleichgewichts und nur auf Lösungströfchen mit dem Radiusr0.1 im Gebiete hoher Feuchten angewendet werden sollten. Da die Bezeichnung «Wachstumskurve» irreführend ist, wird empfohlen, dem GebrauchB. J. Mason's (Physics of Clouds) folgend, diesen Ausdruck prinzipiell durch die Bezeichnung «Gleichgewichtskurve» zu ersetzen. Desgleichen sollten alle für diese Gleichung definierten Grössen wie kritische übersättigung, potentieller Radius und kritischer Radius so umbenannt werden, dass aus der neuen Bezeichnung hervorgeht, dass es sich um Grössen im thermodynamischen Gleichgewicht handelt.Eine Überlegung weist nach, dass in der Regel bei jungen Wolken und Laboratoriumsversuchen, sobald die Feuchtesättigung überschritten wird, die Voraussetzung des Gleichgewichts nicht erfüllt ist. Es wird besonders darauf hingewiesen, dass die Vorstellung, dass die Übersättigung in der Umgebung eines Kerns mindestens seine kritische Gleichgewichtsübersättigung erreicht haben muss, damit der Kern über seinen kritischen Gleichgewichtsradius anwachsen kann, mit dem Experiment in der Mischwolkenkammer nicht in Einklang gebracht werden kann. Die Übersättigung, welche erforderlich ist, in 60 bis 120 Sekundenüber 50% aller Aitkenkerne eines natürlichen Aerosols zu Tröpfchen anwachsen zu lassen, liegt zwischen 2 und 10. Der Betrag der notwendigen Übersättigung scheint von der Zeit und der Kerndichte, vielleicht auch den Dimensionen der Kammer und der Temperatur, nicht aber von der chemischen Beschaffenheit des Kernes abzuhängen, da bei den Versuchen die annähernd gleichen Ergebnisse erzielt wurden, unabhängig davon, ob die Kondensation von Wasseroder Benzindampf erfolgt.

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Summary On examining the premises upon which the so-called «curves of growth» for the solution droplets are based, we have found that these curves are only applicable in case of equilibrium, and only on solution droplets having a radius ofr0.1 in an environment with high relative humidity. Since the term «curves of growth» is misleading, we would suggest striking it out altogether, and substituting it with «equilibrium curve» according toB. J. Mason (Physics of Clouds). Similarly, all the terms connected with this equation, such as supersaturation, potential radius and critical radius should be renamed in such a manner as to make it clear, by the new definitions, that they concern units in thermodynamical equilibrium.Upon consideration, we find that, as a rule, in the case of young clouds and laboratory experiments, as soon as the point of humidity saturation is passed, the premise of equilibrium is no more valid. We would particularly stress the fact that whereas, according to the accepted theory, there must have existed, in the vicinity of a nucleus, at least the critical equilibrium supersaturation in order to enable it to swell beyond its critical radius, we have found that this view cannot be made to agree with the experiments carried out in the mixing-cloud chamber.The degree of supersaturation required in order to getover 50% of all Aitkennuclei of a natural Aerosol to grow into droplets, in 60 to 120 seconds, lies between 2 and 10 per thousand. The amount of supersaturation required seems to be dependent upon the time, the density of the nucleus, possibly even on the size of the chamber and on temperature, not however on the chemical nature of the nucleus, since experiments have shown that almost the same results are achieved both whether condensation results from water vapour or from gasoline vapour. The supersaturation was calculated, not measured. The values stated indicate the maximum possible values under the conditions present.

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Riassunto Durante l'esame delle condizioni per la deduzione delle cosidette «curve di accrescimento» per goccioline di soluzioni, si giunge al risultato che queste curve hanno validità solo nel caso di equilibrio e solo per goccioline di soluzione di raggior0.1 e in regioni di elevata umidità. Poichè la denominazione «curva di accrescimento» può trarre in inganno, si suggerisce, seguendoB. J. Mason (Physics of Clouds), di sostituire questa espressione con la denominazione «curva di equilibrio». Nello stesso modo dovrebbero essere cambiate di nome tutte le grandezze che entrano in questa equazione, come soprasaturazione critica, raggio potenziale e raggio critico; perchè dalla nuova definizione emerge che si tratta di grandezze in equilibrio termodinamico.Una riflessione dimostra che di regola con nubi giovani e in esperienze di laboratorio, l'ipotesi dell'equilibrio non è soddisfatta appena è sorpassata la saturazione. In particolare la rappresentazione che la soprasaturazione nelle vicinanze di un nucleo deve raggiungere perlomeno la sua soprasaturazione critica di equilibrio, affinchè il nucleo possa crescere oltre il suo raggio critico di equilibrio, non può essere messa in accordo con gli esperimenti eseguiti nella camera per nubi di rimescolamento (Mischwolkenkammer).La soprasaturazione necessaria per l'accrescimento in 60–120 secondi di piú del 50% di tutti i nuclei di Aitken di un aerosol naturale giace tra il 2 e il 10 per mille. L'improto della necessaria soprasaturazione sembra dipendere dal tempo e dalla densità dei nuclei, e forse anche dalle dimensioni della camera e dalla temperatura, ma non dalla composizione chimica del nucleo, poichè con gli esperimenti si giunge approssimativamente ai medesimi risultati, sia con condensazione di acqua, sia con condensazione di benzina.

     

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