水圈之最

在地球形成的初期,组成地球的物质曾发生过大规模的物质分异,即比重大的物质下沉,而比重小的物质上浮。水属于较轻的物质,在这个物质分异的过程中不断地运移至地表。由于原始地球地表温度较高,水仅能以蒸汽的形态赋存于原始大气中。随着地表不断散热变冷,才逐渐凝结成雨。降落到地面。年复一年,积少成多,形成了原始海洋（水圈的主要部分）。     

西秦岭北缘深浅部流体通道特征

根据全球流体通道网研究的最新进展, 应用深部地球物理探测资料和岩石的高温高压实验结果, 对西秦岭北缘深大断裂强震活动区岩石圈内流体通道的形成机制和主要特征进行了研究。结果认为, 在选定的研究区内, 存在一条特征比较明显的贯穿整个岩石圈的流体通道,在它的形成过程中, 二种因素起了关键性的作用, 即软流圈中流体的底辟作用和岩石圈中构造块体间的相互错动。岩石圈流体通道中的流体在热的传输过程中起了重要作用, 导致其中的岩石介质在相对较高的温度状态下发生了一系列复杂的地球化学反应和物质的重新分布过程,主要有: ① 中下地壳的含水岩石发生了脱水反应; ② 脱水反应诱发了岩石的局部熔融; ③ 局部熔融体系内部不同密度的岩石介质发生了重力分异作用, 低密度的流体组分向局部熔融体系的上部迁移, 高密度的组分向局部熔融体系的下部迁移, 经过长期的演化, 中地壳的上部形成低速高导层, 下地壳的底部则形成高速层。     

金星:认识早期地球的窗口

无论在行星大小、质量还是轨道速度等方面,金星都是太阳系中与地球最相似的行星.自1960年代初期开始,金星一直是人类深空探测的重要目标.本文简要地回顾了人类探索金星的历史,总结了对金星已有的认识,梳理了金星的主要科学问题,最后介绍了未来的国际探测计划,并建议了我国的金星探测目标.早期对金星的探测以苏联的金星计划(Венера)和美国的水手系列(Mariner)为代表,后期的探测器以欧盟、日本等国家的“金星快车(Venus Express)”、“拂晓号(Akatsuki)”为代表.这些探测结果为我们认识金星大气成分、地表地形和内部结构提供了重要的数据.金星的大气组成以CO₂为主,含少量N2,与现在地球的大气组成显著不同,类似早期地球的大气组成.虽然金星地表目前没有液态水,但部分理论模拟工作表明金星地表可能曾经有液态水.一系列探测器对金星地表成分的分析表明,金星地表主要由玄武岩组成.在地形地貌方面,由于金星特殊的地表环境,金星表面风化作用对地表地貌影响很小.金星的地表主要受控于比较年轻的火山作用,发育了许多不同于地球的地貌特征,主要包括区域平原、盾状火山平原、冕状地形以及瓦片状地形等,其动力学机制可能是地幔柱—岩石圈相互作用或地幔对流,至今未发现与板块构造相关的地貌.现阶段金星没有太多大型的、活跃的火山热点,虽然无法估测准确的火山活动速率,但相比地球来说火山活动速率小很多.在内部结构方面,金星具有与地球类似的核幔壳结构.金星的内部组成也与地球类似,例如金星地幔很可能是与地球相似的橄榄岩成分.不存在内部磁场和缺乏板块构造是金星区别于地球的两个重要特征.关于金星为什么没有自身磁场,主流观点是金星地核缺乏对流,无法演化出磁场.而针对金星为什么没有演化出板块构造,目前认为主要有三个可能的原因:地表温度过高,没有软流圈,金星缺乏液态水,其中液态水的缺乏接受度最广.从大气组成、地表岩石组合、构造作用等角度来看,金星都与早期地球非常相似,是我们理解类地行星演化的天然实验室.研究金星和地球为什么会朝不同方向演化,是深入理解包括系外行星在内的行星的宜居性形成与演变的重要途径。因此,金星一直是优先级别最高的深空探测目标之一.近几年,美国、俄罗斯以及欧洲等国家和地区分别针对金星目前主要的科学问题,例如金星是否存在早期海洋、金星的宜居性以及结构和重力场等,先后提出各自的金星探测计划.我国在新的国际竞争中应该、也必然有所作为.     

华北地区岩石圈类型: 地质与地球物理证据

根据华北地区的地质和地球物理特征, 区分出华北地区的克拉通型、造山带型和裂谷型3 种岩石圈类型, 依据岩石学方法以及地震波速与成分的关系, 建立了华北地区克拉通型、造山带型和裂谷型岩石圈的壳幔岩石学结构和化学结构. 研究表明, 华北地台具有与全球典型克拉通一致的特征, 鄂尔多斯为经历了中新生代地台“活化”和“改造”后残存的克拉通岩石圈, 陆壳主体成分由TTG构成, 岩石圈地幔主要由强亏损的方辉橄榄岩构成, 它于晚太古宙-早元古宙最终形成以后, 一直保持至今, 其壳幔岩石学结构可以作为华北乃至中朝地台克拉通型岩石圈的一个参照. 中生代时期, 华北地台中东部地区在燕山造山过程中被“活化”, 大量对流地幔物质与热输入使该区原来的TTG陆壳组分被改造成为花岗质陆壳, 岩石圈地幔被燕山期形成的方辉橄榄岩-二辉橄榄岩所代替. 燕山-太行山是华北东部地区新生代发育裂谷作用后残留的造山型岩石圈, 因为经历了新生代的伸展减薄, 现今的厚度不能代表燕山期造山时的地壳和岩石圈地幔厚度, 但岩石圈地幔和陆壳的物质及其结构仍然是燕山运动期间造山时形成的. 新生代时期, 华北东部的大陆裂谷作用形成以华北东部平原为代表的裂谷型岩石圈; 随着裂谷发育, 大量玄武岩喷发, 使燕山期的“酸性化”陆壳又被“基性化”, 燕山期形成的岩石圈地幔被破坏形成以二辉橄榄岩为主体的喜山期岩石圈地幔; 裂谷型地壳和岩石圈地幔经历了岩石圈尺度上伸展减薄和热侵蚀, 现今地球物理探测的岩石圈地幔和陆壳的物质和结构是新生代形成的. 华北地区岩石圈形成和演化表明, 大量对流地幔物质与热输入是不同类型岩石圈形成的关键, 壳幔岩石学结构是岩石圈演化的综合记录, 它们是中新生代中国大陆动力学系统与华北地台东侧的太平洋板块共同作用的结果.     

碳酸岩是大陆岩石圈构造背景和地幔交代作用的指示岩石

根据已知碳酸岩的地质产状、岩石学特征、Nd-Sr-Pb同位素及痕量元素地球化学特征,结合高温高压实验岩石学资料,论述了其地幔源区的物质成分、交代过程、软流圈地幔部分熔融机制和碳酸岩岩浆的演化模型碳酸岩既可以产生于裂谷环境,由起源于软流圈地幔的霞石质超基性-基性岩浆经液态不混溶作用而形成,与硅酸不饱和过碱性杂岩构成环状碳酸岩-碱性杂岩;也能够产生于碰撞造山过程中派生的引张岩石圈断裂带,直接导源于岩石圈地幔的低程度部分熔融作用,形成单一的透镜状、条带状和似层状碳酸岩体     

地幔过渡带顶面低速层的研究进展

位于地幔过渡带顶面上方的低速层是近20年来固体地球物理学研究领域的一个重要发现.其对于认识俯冲作用、地幔对流模式和强度、地球内部圈层间的耦合和解耦、物质分布和迁移,乃至原始地球演化等地球深部物理化学过程有着极为重要的意义.该低速层陆续发现于全球的多个区域,所处的构造位置也不尽相同,主要包括俯冲带和大陆克拉通.其在横向上有很大的变化,主要体现在深度和厚度的波动.关于低速层的成因,虽然部分熔融成因得到了较为广泛的认同,但部分熔融作用的诱发因素、发生位置以及熔体的密度和黏度等方面的研究还不够充分.通过分析基于部分熔融成因的几个关键问题,本文最后讨论了相关的地球动力学意义.     

格尔木——额济纳旗地学断面走廓域地壳—上地幔岩石学结构与深…

基于岩石学研究与地球物理场的结合。提出了祁连山、柴达木与北山３个地区的壳幔岩石学结构，认为造山带加厚的下地壳与山根带分别由高压麻粒岩相与榴夺相岩石构成，对断面走廊域进行了岩石学填图。探讨了山根的形成与不对称，陆壳物质的分异与新莫霍界面的形成，造山岩石圈增厚机制、岩石圈拆沉与玄武岩岩浆底侵作用等。讨论了青藏高原南、北缘岩石圈增厚机制的差异及其岩石学标志。     

秦岭造山带岩石圈电性结构及其地球动力学意义

秦岭造山带三维电性结构特征的详细研究结果，结合其他多种地球物理和地质资料分析发现，自中新生代以来，尤其是晚近时期华北和扬子两地块向秦岭造山带持续陆内俯冲过程中，由于南秦岭岩石圈向北挤入作用，秦岭造山带的后陆冲断褶带和北秦岭厚皮叠瓦逆冲带，现今处于岩石圈叠置加厚与拆沉作用的初始期；与之相反，南秦岭正在经历拆沉－底侵的物质再循环作用，佛坪一带可能发育新的地幔柱；此外，在造山带北、南深部边界与内部不同岩石圈块体之间还伴随强烈的不同性质的走滑作用和物质侧向传输．最后探讨了秦岭造山带构造拆沉与巨厚岩石圈并存以及走滑构造作用等的地球动力学意义．     

地幔柱作用与岩石圈改造:以塔里木克拉通为例

克拉通是稳定的大陆块体,形成于太古代,具有巨厚的岩石圈地幔根,其厚度多大于200 km.地幔热柱作用早期会显著减薄岩石圈地幔、降低岩石圈强度,现有地震和地幔捕虏体数据资料显示,克拉通经历过地幔柱作用后仍有超过150 km厚的稳定岩石圈地幔根,其岩石圈地幔根的主要物质成分是亏损的橄榄岩,岩石圈的强度仍旧保持高强度.这一现象具有全球效应,如北美Slave克拉通和非洲南部Kaapvaal克拉通均经历了这一过程.本文系统地归纳总结了地幔柱作用前后岩石圈典型特征,并结合相应阶段的构造响应发现：稳定的克拉通在地幔柱的作用下岩石圈会发生强烈的改造,伴随地表岩浆活动和克拉通岩石圈的减薄和弱化;而后亏损的地幔柱熔融残余物会重新加厚和增强岩石圈地幔.岩浆岩记录的地球化学资料显示,塔里木岩石圈在二叠纪时期经历了严重的改造过程;而岩石圈深部结构的地震、地热和大地电磁资料显示,现今塔里木岩石圈厚度约为150 km.塔里木岩石圈在新生代印度—欧亚大陆碰撞背景下仍旧表现出刚性的特征,塔里木岩石圈的增厚与增强是塔里木早二叠世地幔柱作用的结果.文章最后讨论了塔里木岩石圈减薄到再增厚的过程,并提出初步的模式．     

原始太阳星云条件下Fischer-Tropsch反应中的碳同位素分馏

实验研究结果表明:原始太阳星云地球吸积区条件下Fischer-Tropsch反应的产物中二氧化碳具有最重的碳同位素组成;甲烷的碳同位素组成变化很大,乙烷、丙烷、丁烷间的碳同位素分配具有与生物成因烃类完全不同的反序排列特征,这表明了地球形成时吸积于其内部的原始烃类气体的碳同位素分配是反序排列的.     

Deep origin of Cenozoic volcanoes in Northeast China revealed by 3-D electrical structure

The three-dimensional(3-D)electrical structure of the upper-mantle was used to examine the deep origins of and relationship among the Cenozoic volcanoes located in Northeast China(NEC).High-quality,long-period magnetotelluric(LMT)full-impedance tensor data were collected in NEC and subjected to 3-D Gauss-Newton inversion in order to construct a resistivity model.The resulting model reveals the presence of multiple localized low-resistivity anomalies(LRAs)within the high resistivity lithosphere beneath NEC.These LRAs partially coincide with Cenozoic volcanoes on the surface.Three LRAs that form a larger,annular LRA were observed in the deep upper mantle beneath the Songliao Basin,whereas vein-like LRAs were found in the asthenosphere that connect the lithosphere and deep upper mantle.Petrophysical analyses suggest that the LRAs may have been caused by fluid-induced melting.Based on our electrical model,we propose that,following dehydration of the subducted Western Pacific slab into the mantle transition zone(MTZ)beneath NEC,the released water migrated upward and caused partial melting at the top of the MTZ beneath the Songliao Basin.Under the effect of buoyancy,the melted mantle formed a thermal upwelling that caused melting of asthenosphere before diapiring at the base of the dry lithosphere.The magma then penetrated structural boundaries(such as thinner,weaker,or activated suture zones)and finally reached the Earth's surface.This melting and upwelling of hot mantle materials may have resulted in large-scale volcanism in the region throughout the Cenozoic,including the eruption of Changbai Mountain and Halaha Volcanoes.Our results suggest that the Cenozoic NEC volcanoes may all share a similar mode of genesis,and probably originated from the annular LRA in the deep upper mantle.     

Oxygen and hydrogen in the primitive atmosphere

From time to time there appears in the literature the assertion that photolysis of water vapor could have maintained an appreciable concentration of oxygen in the primitive (prebiological) atmosphere. The implausibility of this assertion is argued in this paper.By itself, photolysis does not provide a source of oxygen because it is usually followed by recombination of the products of photolysis. Only the escape to space (at a much smaller rate) of the hydrogen produced by photolysis of water results in a net source of oxygen. The oxidation state of the primitive atmosphere depended on the relative magnitudes of this net source of oxygen and a volcanic source of hydrogen and other reduced gases. Today the volcanic source of reduced gases is approximately equal to the oxygen source provided by photolysis followed by escape. The oxygen source depends on the mixing ratio of water vapor in the stratosphere, which ultimately determines the rate of escape of hydrogen produced from water vapor. Its magnitude may not have been very different in the past. The volcanic source of hydrogen, on the other hand, is likely to have been much larger when the earth was tectonically young. Hydrogen was therefore released to the primitive atmosphere more rapidly than oxygen, probably. Photochemical reactions with the excess hydrogen maintained oxygen mixing ratios at negligibly small levels. The hydrogen mixing ratio was determined by a balance between the volcanic source (reduced by recombination with oxygen) and escape to space.In time, either because of decline of the volcanic source of hydrogen or because of addition of a biological source of oxygen, the input of oxygen to the atmosphere rose above the input of hydrogen. The oxidation state of the atmosphere changed rapidly. Volcanic hydrogen was now consumed by photochemical reactions with excess oxygen, while the oxygen mixing ratio was determined by a balance between the source (reduced by recombination with volcanic hydrogen) and consumption in reactions with reduced material at the surface.     

Eruptive activity at Mount St Helens,Washington, USA, 1984–1988: a gas geochemistry perspective

The results from two different types of gas measurement, telemetered in situ monitoring of reducing gases on the dome and airborne measurements of sulfur dioxide emission rates in the plume by correlation spectrometry, suggest that the combination of these two methods is particularly effective in detecting periods of enhanced degassing that intermittently punctuate the normal background leakage of gaseous effluent from Mount St Helens to the atmosphere. Gas events were recorded before lava extrusion for each of the four dome-building episodes at Mount St Helens since mid-1984. For two of the episodes, precursory reducing gas peaks were detected, whereas during three of the episodes, COSPEC measurements recorded precursory degassing of sulfur dioxide. During one episode (October 1986), both reducing gas monitoring and SO₂ emission rate measurements simultaneously detected a large gas release several hours before lava extrusion. Had both types of gas measurements been operational during each of the dome-building episodes, it is thought that both would have recorded precursory signals for all four episodes. Evidence from the data presented herein suggests that increased degassing at Mount St Helens becomes detectable when fresh upward-moving magma is between 2 km and a few hundred meters below the base of the dome and between about 60 and 12 hours before the surface extrusion of lava.     

气候背景下冰川在博斯腾湖水量平衡中的作用

基于博斯腾湖水量平衡关系,对博斯腾湖水量变化做了分析,认为博斯腾湖近年水位的显著变化与占其入湖水量85%的开都河流量变化有直接关系．冰川作为开都河上游重要的水资源形势,造就了开都河稳定的基流．部分冰川在近20年全球和区域气候变化影响下发生了较大退缩,消退的冰雪直接补给了开都河径流,对开都河连年丰水起了重要作用．随着相对海拔较低的中小冰川的退缩,冰益变薄雪线升高,冰雪储量减少,冰川对气温升高的敏感性开始降低,融水补给量可能随之减少,气候变暖所带来的融水补给效应将减弱,最终影响到博斯腾湖的入流补给．     

Ocean contributes to the melting of the Jakobshavn Glacier front

The Jakobshavn Glacier(JG)in Greenland is one of the most active glaciers in the world.It was close to balance before 1997 but this was followed by a sudden transition to rapid thinning.The reason for the change remains unclear.In this study,The NASA Pre-IceBridge ice thickness data are collected to monitor the melting of JG front.The surface elevation decreased by around 90 m from 1995 to 2002 on the floating front.A distributed energy balance model is developed to estimate the energy balance of JG front in the past 30 years(1986-2016).The results indicate that multi-year average energy fluxes absorbed by the floating front of JG from the ocean were about 500 Wm^-2 from 1986 to 2016.This is approximately two times of the energy fluxes from atmosphere during the same period.The energy fluxes from the ocean increased from 200 to 600 Wm^-2during the period from 1990 to 1998 while energy fluxes from the atmosphere remained stable at about 250 Wm^-2.These results demonstrate that ocean contributes more to the melting of the JG front,and suggest that bottom surface melting must have a profound influence on marine-terminating glacier dynamics.     

Helium isotopes in the earth's interior and in the atmosphere: A degassing model of the earth

A first-order degassing model was applied to describe the evolution of helium content and isotope composition in the earth and in the atmosphere. The main events described by the model are: (1) the earth-trapped primordial rare gases at the moment of its accretion; (2) later, the solid earth lost primordial and radiogenic rare gases, and (3) they were accumulated in the atmosphere; (4) in addition,³He was formed in the atmosphere due to cosmic irradiation, accretion from solar wind, etc.; (5)³He and⁴He dissipated into space at different loss rates.Study of this model confirms the concept that some of primordial helium is retained in the interior of the earth; terrestrial helium (³He/⁴He～ 2 × 10^?5) was most probably formed as a mixture of primordial (³He/⁴He= 3 × 10^?4) and radiogenic (³He/⁴He～ 3 × 10^?8) helium. For achondritic concentrations of heavy radioactive elements (U= 2.25 × 10^?8g/g) the calculated⁴He flux from the earth is equal to 5.7 × 10⁶ at cm^?2 sec^?1. The corresponding³He flux is about 114 at cm^?2 sec^?1. In discussing the aeronomic problem of helium it is necessary to take into account that the earth is the main source of the light helium isotope.     

Hydrating laterally extensive regions of continental lithosphere by flat subduction: A pilot study from the North American Cordillera

It has been suggested that much of the lithopheric mantle beneath the Colorado Plateau was hydrated by the dehydration of the Farallon plate when it was undergoing low angle subduction during the Laramide orogeny. If correct, low angle subduction could be a viable mechanism for weakening laterally extensive regions of continental lithosphere, allowing such lithosphere potentially to be recycled back into the Earth's interior and into the asthenospheric mantle wedge. To test this hypothesis, we model the release of water during prograde metamorphism of a flat-subducting Farallon plate by considering a thermal model for flat subduction and tracking open-system metamorphic phase equilibria. Our model indicates that significant amounts of water can be laterally transported ∼700 km inboard of the trench, close to the width of the North American Cordillera. The amount of water released is shown here to have been large enough to influence the rheology of the overriding North American lithosphere and the potential for melting at its base. Anomalously high S-velocities in the lithospheric mantle supports our modeled calculations of laterally extensive weakening at the base of the continental lithosphere.     

柴达木盆地深部物理参数的反演

通过研究地球对表面载荷的响应来反演确定地球深部的物理参数.采用分为4层的地球模型,各层的介质被看作Maxwell粘弹性体.将柴达木盆地沉降发育过程中积累的沉积物作为随时间变化的载荷加于地表,通过拟合柴达木盆地沉降中心附近地区的沉降过程来研究该地区地壳的厚度及剪切模量、岩石层地幔的粘性及软流层的粘性等物理参数.计算结果表明,该地区地壳的剪切模量不会超过全球平均值的60％,岩石层地幔的粘性系数不大于1.5×10²³Pa·s.通过研究对该地区的深部物理参数得出了新的认识.     

Mechanisms linking active rock glaciers and impounded surface water formation in high‐mountain areas

Rock glaciers are slowly flowing mixtures of debris and ice occurring in mountains. They can represent a reservoir of water, and melting ice inside them can affect surface water hydrochemistry. Investigating the interactions between rock glaciers and water bodies is therefore necessary to better understand these mechanisms. With this goal, we elucidate the hydrology and structural setting of a rock glacier–marginal pond system, providing new insights into the mechanisms linking active rock glaciers and impounded surface waters. This was achieved through the integration of waterborne geophysical techniques (ground penetrating radar, electrical resistivity tomography and self‐potentials) and heat tracing. Results of these surveys showed that rock glacier advance has progressively filled the valley depression where the pond is located, creating a dam that could have modified the level of impounded water. A sub‐surface hydrological window connecting the rock glacier to the pond was also detected, where an inflow of cold and mineralised underground waters from the rock glacier was observed. Here, greater water contribution from the rock glacier occurred following intense precipitation events during the ice‐free season, with concomitant increasing electrical conductivity values. The outflowing dynamic of the pond is dominated by a sub‐surface seepage where a minor fault zone in bedrock was found, characterised by altered and highly‐fractured rocks. The applied approach is evaluated here as a suitable technique for investigating logistically‐complex hydrological settings which could be possibly transferred to wider scales of investigation. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Laboratory measurements on radon exposure effects on local environmental temperature: Implications for satellite TIR measurements

Surface latent heat flux (SLHF) is proportional to the heat released by phase changes during solidification, evaporation or melting. Effects of SLHF on the earth’s surface could be measured by satellite techniques capable of measuring thermal infrared radiation (TIR). Recent studies have found a possible correlation between SLHF and earthquakes, hence satellite techniques are widely used in research into the possible link between SLHF and earthquakes. Possible fluctuations in SLHF values during seismic periods have been attributed to different causes, such as the expulsion from the ground of greenhouse gases or because of radon. In particular, ionization processes due to radon decay could lead to changes in air temperature. Laboratory experiments have been carried out to highlight the possible role of radon in the thermal environmental conditions of a laboratory-controlled atmospheric volume.