ON THE PROPERTIES OF THE RECIPROCAL GEOELECTRIC SECTION*

The interpretation of vertical electrical sounding data can be facilitated by the application of the reciprocal geoelectric section. If an apparent resistivity field curve has a descending right end, the apparent resistivity curve of the reciprocal geoelectric section can be obtained by the application of linear filter theory; from this the total transverse resistance of the geoelectric section can be calculated without having to interpret the field curve. In addition, Orellana's auxiliary point method can now be extended to interpret three and four layer apparent resistivity curves of all types. This paper summarizes the properties of the resistivity transform curve, the apparent resistivity curve, and the apparent resistivity curve of the reciprocal geoelectric section, with several new applications.     

地电阻率季节干扰变化分析

结合我国实际,本文提出四类地电阻率季节变化的干扰模型.经模型理论计算及同有季节变化的四十多台站的实测资料对比得出:(1)地电阻率季节变化是探测深度偏浅时,地表层电性变化,特别是表层地下水水位年动态变化所引起的一种与地震无关的干扰变化.其变化形态与量级取决于干扰模型、地电断面类型以及探测深度.(2)通常地电阻率季节变化与浅层电阻率变化的符号一致,呈现出正常季节变化;但对 K,Q 型地电断面,当干扰层位于地表第一层时,将从某一供电极距开始,出现反常的季节干扰变化.(3)当探测深度大于300m 时,不论正常的还是反常的季节变化,其幅度都将小于2%.因此,只要适当选择台址或加大供电极距使探测深度足够大,便可排除或压低这种干扰.      

NUMERICAL MODELLING OF STANDARD AND CONTINUOUS VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDINGS1

Analytical solutions of vertical electrical soundings (VES) have mostly been applied to groundwater exploration and monitoring groundwater quality on terrains of fairly simple geology and geomorphology on which the electrode arrays are symmetrical (e.g. Schlumberger or Wenner configurations). The sounding interpretation assumes flat topography and horizontally stratified layers. Any deviations from these simple situations may be impossible to interpret analytically. The recently developed GEA-58 geoelectrical instrument can make continuous soundings along a profile with any colinear electrode configuration. This paper describes the use of finite-difference and finite-element methods to model complex earth resistivity distributions in 2D, in order to calculate apparent resistivity responses to any colinear current electrode distribution in terrains in which the earth resistivities do not vary along the strike. The numerical model results for simple situations are compared with the analytical solutions. In addition, a pseudo-depth section of apparent resistivities measured in the field with the GEA-58 is compared with the numerical solution of a real complex resistivity distribution along a cross-section. The model results show excellent agreement with the corresponding analytical and experimental data.     

An analysis of the seasonal variation of disturbance in georesistivity

Four types of disturbances in the seasonal variation in georesistivity are presented in the light of specific circumstances in China. As the results of theoretic calculation for the models and in comparison of the calculated results with the seasonal variations observed at 40 georesistivity stations, the following points are found: (1) The seasonal variation in georesistivity is caused by the change in resistivity of the surface layer, especially by the annual variation of phreatic level when the sounding depth is too shallow. This is one of the disturbances and thus has no relation to the origin of earthquake. The feature and amplitude of the seasonal variation depend on the types of disturbance models, geoelectric cross sections and sounding depth. (2) The seasonal variation in georesistivity usually has the same sign as that of the change in resistivity of shallow layer and thus the normal seasonal change appears. However, as far as the K or Q types of geoelectric cross sections are concerned, the abnormal seasonal variation in georesistivity starts to appear with a certain electrode spacing, when the interference layer is located in the first layer. (3) Both abnormal and normal seasonal variations in georesistivity will be smaller than 2% when the sounding depth is greater than 300 m. Therefore, the seasonal variations can be removed or restrained when the location of observation has been properly chosen or the electrode spacing is enlarged enough to obtain a sufficient sounding depth.     

Results of electromagnetic sounding with JASC submarine cable

We present the results of long-term deep geoelectric studies using the JASC (Japan Sea Cable) submarine communication cable in the region of the Sea of Japan. In the 2D inversion of the amplitude and phase’s apparent resistivity curves and the frequency dependences of the tipper, we invoked the geological and geophysical information about the region and on-shore electromagnetic observations to fit the model to the observations. The resulting geoelectrical cross section of the region of the Sea of Japan along the JASC cable obtained in this way agrees well with the experimental data. The upper part of the section contains a conductive block beneath the bottom of the Central basin of the Sea of Japan at a depth of 10–40 km, a fault submerging below the continent in the marginal part and a deep fault in the continental region. In the lower portions of the cross section, the high-resistivity block interrupts the continuity of the horizontal conductive layers beneath the Yamato Uplift, and the conductive bottom part of the geoelectric cross section submerges under the continent. In the continental segment of the cross section, there is a large block with reduced electric resistivity, which is located between the conductive layers at a depth interval of 200–560 km. We analyze the characteristic features of the geoelectric cross section and the deep section imaged by seismic tomography in the region of the Sea of Japan.     

小波方法在地电场干扰处理中的分析研究

该文在对地电场信号及地电阻率人工供电干扰信号的时频特征进行分析的基础上, 提出了小波域阈值滤波方法, 对地电场秒采样信号中叠加地电阻率人工供电干扰信号进行了分析和处理, 处理产生的误差在地电场观测的允许误差范围之内。     

电位双二次变化二维地电断面电阻率测深有限元数值模拟

以异常电位为研究对象,给出了一种新的二维地电断面电阻率测深的有限元数值模拟方法.该方法与以往这类方法的主要区别在于,网格单元中的电导率采用双线性插值,电位则用二次函数进行双二次插值,从而使得电位的正演结果以及由电位导出的视电阻率更加符合实际地电场的变化规律;另外,有限元网格单元数也大为减少.对几例模型的试算结果表明,文中提出的计算方法是行之有效的.     

A deep geoelectric model of the Bol’she-Bannyi hydrothermal system,Kamchatka

This paper reports the results of magnetotelluric sounding (MTS) in the area where the Bol’she-Bannyi hydrothermal springs are discharged. The MTS curves were inverted on the assumption of a twodimensional inhomogeneous model using longitudinal and transverse curves of apparent resistivity. It was found that the geoelectric section contains a nearly vertical anomaly of high electrical conductivity at depths of 5.5–8 km, which is the signature of a deep-seated fault. The resulting geoelectric section for the upper crust and data from regional magnetotelluric soundings were used as a basis for developing a conceptual deep model of the Bol’she-Bannyi hydrothermal system. We quote an approximate estimate of rock porosity. According to the model, deep fluids come from a crustal layer into the subvertical deep-seated fault then penetrate via fissures into the sedimentary–volcanogenic cover, and finally arrive at the ground surface in zones of high rock permeability. We provide a recommendation for drilling a deep well in order to determine the potential of the Bol’she-Bannyi hydrothermal field.     

The use of invariant MTS curves in deep magnetotelluric studies

Invariant amplitude curves of the phase tensor are shown to be applicable to the geoelectric model reconstruction in the lower part of the section even if its upper part includes geoelectric heterogeneities described by the tensor of galvanic distortions. The use of other types of invariant curves provides reliable constraints on the deep structure of the section only if the upper part of the section does not contain contrasting geoelectric heterogeneities.     

Improved imaging of a karst aquifer using focused source electromagnetic and differentially normalized method: a qualitative analysis

Geophysical investigations using conventional techniques applied to groundwater exploration can often present strong limitations involving high financial costs, complex acquisition logistics and high ambiguity in results. Dispersion of the electric current flow, induced polarization) effects, cultural noises and shallow lateral heterogeneities represent the main problems faced by geoelectric methods in these types of surveys. Moreover, elements such as intrusions and mineralization at different depths may be responsible for signal attenuation as well as high resistivity in unsaturated zones and complex three-dimensional formations or clayey zones cause variations in the electric current. The focused source electromagnetic and differentially normalized method approaches can help to solve some these issues. Aiming at a higher signal-to-noise ratio, the focused source electromagnetic method and approaches of the differentially normalized method, first applied to petroleum exploration, are tested on a groundwater target, in a karst environment sectioned by a diabase dyke. We performed the processing and analysis on real IP resistivity profiling data acquired with two-way dipole-dipole array, guided by magnetic data acquired on the same profile, mapping a diabase dyke. The inversion of focused source electromagnetic method/differentially normalized method was not performed, instead that we converted the induced polarization–resistivity data to a differential signal to qualitatively prove the presence of aquifer. Joint interpretation of focused source electromagnetic method curves and inverted two-dimensional induced polarization–resistivity sections allowed for precise delineation of a conductive zone associated with the karst aquifer, le magnetics allowed for the definition of a neighbour dyke. The techniques have great potential in the aid of groundwater exploration, contributing substantially to the reduction of interpretation ambiguity. Focused source electromagnetic method/differentially normalized method/ approaches show that a simple linear combination of the conventional geoelectric data is able to remove the geological noise and provide the vertical focusing of the electric current.     

Monitoring of relative changes in the electrical conductivity of rocks from observations of the magnetotelluric apparent resistivity (numerical modeling)

A method for direct conversion of observed variations in the magnetotelluric (MT) apparent resistivity ρ_a into relative variations in the resistivity of elements of a well-studied geoelectric structure is proposed. The method is tested on a 1-D model structure consisting of seven horizontal layers in three of which the conductivity can vary within certain limits. It is inferred that the frequency range and the accuracy of methods of magnetotelluric sounding presently applied to the construction of transfer operators are sufficient for determining relative changes in the resistivity of rocks; the latter, as distinct from ρ_a, can serve as an effective prognostic parameter. The method can be extended to more complex geoelectric structures.     

Solutions of the inherent problem of the equivalence in direct current resistivity and electromagnetic methods through global optimization and joint inversion by successive refinement of model space

The problem of equivalence in direct current (DC) resistivity and electromagnetic methods for a thin resistive and conducting layer is well‐known. Attempts have been made in the past to resolve this problem through joint inversion. However, equivalence still remains an unresolved problem. In the present study, an effort is made to reduce non‐uniqueness due to equivalence using global optimization and joint inversion by successive refinement of the model space. A number of solutions derived for DC resistivity data using very fast simulated annealing global inversion that fits the observations equally well, follow the equivalence principle and show a definite trend. For a thin conductive layer, the quotient between resistivity and thickness is constant, while for a resistive one, the product between these magnitudes is constant. Three approaches to obtain very fast simulated annealing solutions are tested. In the first one, layer resistivities and thicknesses are optimized in a linear domain. In the second, layer resistivities are optimized in the logarithmic domain and thicknesses in the linear domain. Lastly, both layer resistivities and thicknesses are optimized in the logarithmic domain. Only model data from the mean models, corresponding to very fast simulated annealing solutions obtained for approach three, always fit the observations. The mean model defined by multiple very fast simulated annealing solutions shows extremely large uncertainty (almost 100%) in the final solution after inversion of individual DC resistivity or electromagnetic (EM) data sets. Uncertainty associated with the intermediate resistive and conducting layers after global optimization and joint inversion is still large. In order to reduce the large uncertainty associated with the intermediate layer, global optimization is performed over several iterations by reducing and redefining the search limits of model parameters according to the uncertainty in the solution. The new minimum and maximum limits are obtained from the uncertainty in the previous iteration. Though the misfit error reduces in the solution after successive refinement of the model space in individual inversion, it is observed that the mean model drifts away from the actual model. However, successive refinement of the model space using global optimization and joint inversion reduces uncertainty to a very low level in 4–5 iterations. This approach works very well in resolving the problem of equivalence for resistive as well as for conducting layers. The efficacy of the approach has been demonstrated using DC resistivity and EM data, however, it can be applied to any geophysical data to solve the inherent ambiguities in the interpretations.     

The deep structure of the southern kamchatka volcanic zone from geophysical data

We discuss the interpretation method and results of magnetotelluric soundings in combination with other geological and geophysical data. The interpretation method was developed by studying possible distortions in MTS curves using 3D-numerical modeling of the magnetotelluric field. Deep conductivity was studied by using longitudinal MTS curves below a period of 400 s, which are nearly unaffected by the induction effect due to marine electrical currents. Transverse curves were used to obtain more detail for the geoelectric model. Inversion of average longitudinal MTS curves resulted in a geoelectric section of the lithosphere down to a depth of 60 km. Anomalies of high conductivity in the lithosphere were detected and were found to produce certain effects in gravity and seismic velocities. MTS and seismic tomography data were used to determine the possible origin of the high conductivity anomaly and to estimate rock porosity and the concentration of magma melts.     

Inversion of relative changes in the magnetotelluric apparent resistivity into the relative changes in the resistivity of the elements of a geoelectric structure

The earlier proposed method for inversion of the observed changes in the magnetotelluric apparent resistivity ρ_a into the relative changes in the resistivity of the elements of a well-studied geoelectric structure is tested on a 2D model representing one of the geodynamic research areas of Kamchatka. The possibilities are demonstrated for choosing the most effective observation conditions of the study, and for the determination of the source of the observed variations in γ_a. It is concluded that, if a number of conditions are met, it is possible to estimate the amplitude of relative changes in the electrical resistivity of rocks with sufficient accuracy for monitoring these changes with the aforementioned changes used as a prognostic parameter.     

Possibilities of interpretation of the magnetotelluric data,obtained on a single profile over 3D resistivity structures

Magnetotelluric soundings are frequently carried out on a single profile or on profiles remote from each other. Interpretation of the obtained data is difficult in the presence of spatially heterogeneous geoelectric structures. We evaluate its capabilities on the basis of the synthetic data, that correspond to a geoelectric model, which consists of a three-layered section in the background and three rectangular prisms, differently arranged relative to the profile. Using the simple methods of analysis of magnetotelluric data, we succeeded in allocating all three heterogeneities over the area that surrounds the profile of observations. As a result of the fast smoothed-structure 1D and 2D inversion of different components of data, taking into account their specific features, the depths of the occurrence of anomalies and the order of the values of their electrical resistivity were evaluated, and the background section was also reconstructed. On this basis, and, also, with the use of a priori geological-geophysical information, the construction of a 3D model in a more or less broad band around the profile and its correction with the aid of 3D data inversion are possible.     

The effect of intrinsic model noise upon resistivity inversion

Model uncertainty is introduced into direct-current resistivity data by adding random changes to layer thicknesses in a ten-layer model. The resulting information is then aliased by generating a sounding curve which contains less information than the ten resistivities and nine thicknesses. These sounding curves are then inverted via the Backus-Gilbert algorithm using singular value decomposition to obtain solutions in terms of simpler two-or three-layer models. Quantitative results confirm what has been known qualitatively for many years as the principle of equivalence. An interesting result is that the geometric average of a given suite of noisy models is virtually identical to the best-fit model for the average of the noisy curves. The results show that the inversion of resistivity data by nonlinear least-squares parameter fitting is stable in the sense that noise in the data inverts to the same magnitude of noise in the model.     

Electrical resistivity characterization and defect detection on a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) on an experimental site

In this paper we analyze the onsite characterization of a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) that serves to ensure the impermeability of a landfill cap by DC electrical methods. The imaging of the GCL geoelectrical properties is a challenging problem because it is a very thin (between 4 and 7 mm thick) and resistive layer (from 100,000 to 2,000,000 Ω·m) depending on meteorological conditions and aging. We compare results obtained using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) using two different kinds of arrays (dipole–dipole DD and Wenner–Schlumberger) on an experimental site with engineered defects. To confirm these results and to find the real onsite GCL resistivity we have performed sampling of the posterior distribution of this parameter using vertical electrical sounding (VES) inversions. Different VES methods were extracted from ERT with DD array and converted into a Schlumberger array.As a main conclusion the dipole–dipole array provides a better resistivity resolution of the defects than the Wenner–Schlumberger array. On ERT images, the defect detection seems to be impossible if the GCL has very high resistivity, as it happened when it was put in place. Taking into account the equivalence rules, the inversions are in both cases (ERT and VES) compatible. The GCL resistivity estimated from PSO (particle swarm optimization) varies from 3.0 10⁵ to 1.10⁶ Ω·m depending on saturation conditions during the twenty first months of its placing. Then, the resistivity dropped to 4.10⁴–9.10⁴ Ω·m, indicating a probable chemical damage of the GCL due to aging. Finally the fact that the VES inversions are solved via PSO sampling allows for the detection of a very thin and resistive layer and opens the possibility of performing micro VES surveys along the landfill to detect possible GCL defects.     

A NUMERICAL METHOD OF CALCULATING THE KERNEL FUNCTION FROM SCHLUMBERGER APPARENT RESISTIVITY DATA*

A method to calculate the resistivity transform of Schlumberger VES curves has been developed. It consists in approximating the field apparent resistivity data by utilizing a linear combination of simple functions, which must satisfy the following requirements: (i) they must be suitable for fitting the resistivity data; (ii) once the fitting function has been obtained they allow the kernel to be determined in an analytic way. The fitting operation is carried out by the least mean squares method, which also accomplishes a useful smoothing of the field curve (and therefore a partial noise filtering). It gives the possibility of assigning different weights to the apparent resistivity values to be approximated according to their different reliability. For several examples (theoretical resistivity curves in order to estimate the precision of the method and with field data to verify the practicality) yield good results with short execution time independent of shape the apparent resistivity curve.     

汶川MS8.0地震前成都台NE测线 地电阻率异常的进一步研究

汶川M_S8.0地震前, 位于震源区内的成都台NE测线地电阻率显示了数年大幅度趋势下降异常, 其年变化甚至严重畸变到消失的程度, 它和多年来我国7级以上大地震记录到的异常形态有极大的相似性, 被认为是最清晰的异常之一. 然而, 长期的观测表明, 成都台NE测线地电阻率与测区潜水水位年变化呈正相关. 因此, 关注异常发展过程中测区水位变化, 成为汶川M_S8.0地震震例地电阻率异常科学总结的重要课题之一. 本文通过对成都台建台以来NE测线地电阻率的全程分析, 确认与汶川M_S8.0地震有关的地电阻率异常变化属于全程变化的第三阶段(1999—2008年). 分析了第三阶段同步观测的地下水位数据, 并进行了地电阻率和地下水位趋势变化的综合分析. 最终确认与汶川M_S8.0地震有关的地电阻率异常经历了前、 后两个时段: 前期2004年2月—2006年2月, 小幅趋势上升, 幅度约为1.9％; 后期2006年2月—2008年2月, 趋势下降, 幅度达-6.8％, 如此大幅度快速下降现象, 是成都台建台30多年来从未见到的. 基于前人开展的试验工作的启示, 推测与此下降相应的测区底层(h＞96.6 m)介质电阻率减小量可达22.3％左右. 其量级之大, 须用承载标本试验中岩石破裂前微裂隙广泛发育和排列趋同化导致的地电阻率变化来解释, 由于成都台位于汶川地震震源区内的特殊位置, 可以作为汶川地震孕震物理过程研究中的重要约束条件之一.      

陕西周至地电台地电阻率年变特征分析

本文基于测深反演结果, 通过数值模拟定性分析了地下水位和降雨对周至地电台地电阻率观测的影响; 同时利用褶积算法定量分析了降雨对该台NS向和NE向地电阻率观测的短期影响和长趋势影响.结果表明, 周至地电台地电阻率年变主要由地表薄层介质电阻率季节变化引起, 受地下水位变化影响不明显. 降雨对NS向和NE向地电阻率观测值的影响在短期内与观测结果一致, 表现为增加; 但长期趋势则与观测结果呈负相关关系.根据数值模拟分析认为, 这种变化与降雨及其渗透深度有关.分析结果与实际观测结果一致, 为正确认识周至地电台地电阻率观测与异常判定提供合理的理论依据.