云闪放电通道的光谱及温度特性

利用无狭缝光栅摄谱仪在西藏地区进行了自然闪电的光谱观测试验,首次拍得了7幅分辨比较清晰的云闪通道的光谱,并与地闪光谱相对比,对云闪光谱的结构特征进行了分析．结果表明,这些云闪光谱显示出两种不同的结构特征：一类与地闪光谱具有相似的谱线结构,而另一类与以往得到的地闪光谱完全不同．同时,与同一地区的地闪光谱相比,在这些云闪光谱中记录到的激发能较高的OII离子谱线比较多．依据谱线波长和相对强度等信息,计算了放电通道的温度,并对通道不同位置处的温度分布进行了分析．从光谱结构和通道温度的特征推断：与地闪相比,在一次闪击过程中,云闪通道内发生的物理过程变化速度更快、变化范围更大;两类光谱对应的云闪通道放电特性有一定的差异．     

闪电放电过程的近红外光谱及温度沿放电通道的演化特征

利用无狭缝红外光谱仪, 获得山东地区闪电放电过程760~970 nm范围的近红外光谱.光谱特征分析得出: 近红外光谱主要是峰值电流之后、放电后期的辐射, 谱线主要是中性原子的贡献.首次讨论了放电后期的通道温度和光谱总强度沿放电通道的演化特征.结果表明, 通道温度较回击电流上升至峰值阶段降低, 约为16000 K; 不同闪电的光谱结构、通道温度差异不大, 反映了放电等离子体复合阶段的特性; 地闪通道的温度和光谱总强度沿放电通道略呈单调变化趋势, 接地点附近最大; 云闪通道的温度和光谱总强度沿放电通道非单调变化, 在通道的拐弯、分叉以及结点附近发生突变.     

云闪放电对云内电荷和电位分布影响的数值模拟

我们应用改进的随机闪电参数化方案，对两次雷暴的起、放电过程进行了二维125 m和250 m分辨率云闪模拟试验，分析表明高分辨率模拟的云闪通道几何结构、延伸范围和最大垂直电场变化等特征与观测结果更为一致，并且揭示了云闪放电重新配置云内电荷分布和空间电荷中和过程的一种新的物理图像：(1) 云闪的直接物理效应是在已有的空间电荷区内沿着放电通道沉积异极性电荷、形成复杂的空间电荷分布，有效地导致云中电位和场强绝对值及静电场能量剧烈下降，使放电终止.其中：放电后在闪电通道经过主要区域，电位降到±30 MV之间，垂直电场强度也降到±20 kV·m-1之间，一次正或负云闪估计消耗掉107～1010 J静电能；(2) 云中电荷中和不是正、负空间电荷简单地直接相互抵消的瞬态过程，而是广泛分布的云中空间电荷与通道沉积的异极性电荷通过湍流交换、平流输送、重力沉降以及起电等多种因素逐渐混合并部分被中和的一个后续慢过程，其弛豫时间典型值在14～44 s之间，在此期间通道感应电荷总量下降到50%以下.并残余部分电荷参与后续放电前高空间电荷密度和强电场的重建过程.     

雷暴云底部正电荷区对闪电类型影响的数值模拟

在经典的雷暴云三极电荷结构的假定下结合已有的随机放电参数化方案,进行了二维高分辨率闪电放电的模拟实验,定量的探讨了雷暴云底部正电荷对闪电类型的影响．结果表明：（1）雷暴云底部正电荷对负地闪和反极性云闪的产生起了关键作用,随着底部正电荷区的电荷密度大小或分布范围的增大,闪电类型依次从正极性云闪向负地闪再向反极性云闪变化;（2）相对于电荷区分布范围而言,底部正电荷区的电荷密度大小对闪电类型的影响起主导作用．只有当雷暴云底部正电荷区的最大电荷密度取值在一定范围内时,才会出现负地闪,并且负地闪的发生概率相对固定;（3）在该范围内,负地闪的发生由底部正电荷区的电荷密度大小以及分布范围共同决定,且其与云闪触发条件之间存在一个线性边界;（4）底部正电荷区的电荷密度大小以及分布范围的共同效果是改变底部正位势阱的分布,当闪电启动参考电位接近0MV时生成反极性云闪,而当其远小于0MV时则更容易形成负地闪．     

基于电离层反射的袖珍云闪(CID)三维定位研究

袖珍云闪是一类区别于常规闪电放电过程的特殊放电现象,能够同时产生极强的高频和低频辐射信号,其低频辐射信号在电离层与地面之间反射后能够在电场变化波形上形成电离层反射脉冲对.电离层反射信号与原信号的时间差包含着放电三维位置和电离层高度的信息,而借助于多站闪电探测网络的同步观测就能够反演这些信息.基于这一规律,本文发展了一种对袖珍云闪实现三维定位的新方法.这种方法不仅能够对大范围内的袖珍云闪实现准确的三维定位,同时还能够反演电离层的高度,是一种潜在的研究电离层相关性质的有效手段.通过将定位结果与雷达回波比较,证明这种方法具有较高的精度.利用这种方法,计算了5489例正极性袖珍云闪和1400例负极性袖珍云闪的放电高度,发现正极性袖珍云闪主要集中在7~14 km,而负极性袖珍云闪达到了15~18 km.负极性袖珍云闪的放电高度总体上与对流层顶高度相当,其数量相比于正极性袖珍云闪明显偏少,因此很可能产生于较为罕见的极旺盛的雷暴过程中.     

基于甚高频三维定位估算闪电通道产生的氮氧化物

基于闪电甚高频辐射源三维定位系统,本文采用了一种三维空间单元网格化提取闪电通道并计算其长度的方法。该方法通过对定位辐射源点进行聚集处理,继而进行通道提取后,可比较准确地得到一次闪电的三维通道总长度。为了验证该方法的可行性,本文设计并进行了模拟实验,定量给出了该方法的误差不超过10％。利用实验室得出的单位放电通道长度产生的NO量与气压的关系,将其应用到不同高度上单位闪电通道长度产生的NOx量。基于该方法对青藏高原东北部地区一次雷暴过程中11次负地闪和59次云闪的通道长度和其产生的氮氧化物量进行了计算。结果表明：地闪平均通道长度为28.9km,云闪平均通道长度为22.3km;一次地闪产生的NOx量平均为1.89×10^25分子数,一次云闪产生的NOx量平均为0.42×10^25分子数。     

雷暴云内闪电双层、分枝结构的数值模拟

试验了一种逃逸启动、双向随机发展的放电参数化改进方案, 并进行了12.5 m的高分辨率、二维雷暴云数值模拟试验, 模拟再现的雷暴云内闪电特征在通道扩展范围和双层、分枝结构以及与位势阱位置的相互配合等方面与实际VHF源定位观测资料分析结果是一致的. 进一步发现: (1) 闪电在雷暴云内相邻的正、负电荷区边界附近触发后, 负先导向正电荷区发展、正先导向负电荷区发展. 存在正负两种极性的云闪, 他们的极性由云中相邻正、负电荷累积区位置的上下配置决定. (2) 电荷累积区的空间分布制约着闪电的空间范围. 云闪几乎遍及其所传播的电荷堆, 遭遇到局域性、与通道极性相同的电荷堆时, 通道将转向、绕开该电荷堆. (3) 电位的空间分布形态同样制约着闪电通道传播方向和几何结构: 先导通道进入正或负位势阱之前沿着最大电位梯度方向传播; 当先导通道穿过它们的中心之后通道更趋于电位变化缓慢的地方发展. (4) 云闪通道在穿过电荷累积区中心以前, 有较好的分形特征, 幂指数约为1.45; 而其后向低电荷浓度地区延伸时, 幂指数随着半径增加而减小. (5) 放电结束后通道感应生成的异极性电荷沉积在正、负先导通道经过的区域, 形成新的、复杂的云内电荷空间分布, 位势极值可由200下降到20 MV.     

雷暴云准静电场对夜间电离层D区的影响

模型，计算了雷暴云电荷突然对地放电后QE场大小 在0～90km高度上的分布. 对200C的正电荷对地放电后的计算表明，在放电1ms后，在65～78km的区域内，QE场大于大气的雪崩电场，而0.5s后，该电场迅速衰减到很低的水平. 在电 离层高度上，由于电子的热化时标和电离时标极短，在QE场的作用下，夜间局部低电离层会 有比较大的响应. 对Boltzmann方程数值求解的结果表明，在某些高度上，电子分布函数有 明显的高能尾巴；在63～83km的高度上，电子平均能量为3eV＜ε＜6eV；计算的电子数 密度 的峰值扰动表明，在65～78km的高度上，电子的数密度增加，最大的电离峰值约在74km处， 大约增加了3个数量级，比电磁脉冲（EMP）的电离效果大得多.     

地磁活动与太阳活动对环电流离子成分与位置的影响

根据CRRES卫星上MICS离子成分探测器的观测资料以及前人有关AMPTE卫星的观测数据，研究了地磁活动和太阳活动性对环电流成分以及各种环电流离子的最大通量位置的影响. 观测表明相对于地磁平静时期，在地磁活动的活跃时期，环电流中O+、He++和He+离子的数密度和能量密度占环电流总数密度和总能量密度的份额增加，相反H+离子所占的比例却明显减少. 太阳活动极大年时环电流中H+离子丰度比极小年时低，而O+和He++离子的丰度却比太阳活动极小年时高. 卫星数据观测还表明，在地球磁暴期间，环电流中O+离子和He+离子的最大通量位置会随着地磁的活动径向移动，平均来看太阳活动极大年的能量粒子最大数密度位置距离地球比极小年时约小0.5RE （RE 为地球半径）.     

等离子体片离子与太阳风及地磁条件的关联研究

本文根据搭载于Cluster卫星的CIS/CODIF和RAPID仪器的观测数据,统计研究了等离子体片中的H⁺、O⁺离子在磁暴期间的时间变化特性,及其对太阳风条件的响应.观测结果表明：(1) 磁暴开始前,O⁺离子（0~40 keV）数密度保持在较低水平.随着磁暴的发展,O⁺数密度缓慢上升,其峰值出现在D_st极小值附近;H⁺离子(0~40 keV)数密度在磁暴开始之前的较短时间迅速增加并达到峰值,在磁暴开始之后迅速降低,并在整个主相和恢复相期间保持在相对较低水平.更高能量的离子则在磁暴开始后迅速增多,并在低能O⁺离子达到峰值之前达到峰值.因此我们推测磁暴初期从等离子体片注入环电流的主要是H⁺离子,主相后期O⁺离子可能扮演更为重要的角色.(2)在地磁活动时期,太阳风密度和动压强与等离子体片中的H⁺、O⁺数密度存在一定相关性.等离子体片中的H⁺离子对北向IMF B_z较为敏感,而IMF B_z南向条件下更有利于太阳风参数对等离子体片中O⁺数密度的影响.在地磁活动平静期,太阳风条件对等离子体片中的离子没有明显影响.     

The spectra and temperature of cloud lightning discharge channel

Spectra of seven cloud lightning discharges are reported for the first time after captured with a Slit-less Spectrograph on Chinese Tibet Plateau. The structural characters are analyzed and compared with the spectra of cloud-to-ground lightning, and the results indicate that the spectra of cloud lightning show two different kinds of structure characteristics. One has the similar structure as those of cloud-toground lightning discharge, and the other is absolutely different. Meanwhile, more lines of OII with high excited energy are recorded in the spectra of cloud lightning discharge in comparison with that of cloud-to-ground lighting happening in the same region. Temperatures at different positions are calculated and temperature characteristics of these two sorts are analyzed, based to the wavelength, relative intensities and other transition parameters. We suggest that the physical process in the cloud discharge channels changes with much more rapid velocity and wider range compared to cloud-to-ground lightning. The differences between the two types of cloud discharge also reflect some discrepancies between the discharge characteristics. Supported by National Nature Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 40475007) and Foundation of Northwest Normal University (Grant No. NWNU-KJCXGC-03-21)     

用宽带干涉仪观测云内闪电通道双向传输的特征

利用闪电宽带干涉仪系统对闪电的观测表明，地闪和云闪的云内闪电通道都存在双向发展的特征. 闪电在云中负电荷区域初始激发以后，在通道两端发生向不同方向同时发展的击穿过程. 这两种击穿过程均产生较强的辐射，且辐射频谱特征十分相似，表明云内闪电通道两端发生的击穿过程可能均为负击穿过程. 相应电场变化表明闪电通道双向发展期间伴随着负电荷的向上转移. 这一观测事实与Kasemir早期提出的闪电通道双向发展的概念有一定的差异.     

Numerical simulation of the effect of lower positive charge region in thunderstorms on different types of lightning

Combined with the existing stochastic lightning parameterization scheme, a classic tripole charge structure in thunderstorms is assumed in the paper, and then 2-dimensional fine-resolution lighting discharge simulations are performed to quantitatively investigate the effect of lower positive charge (LPC) on different types of lightning. The results show: (1) The LPC plays a key role in generating negative cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes and inverted intra-cloud (IC) lightning, and with the increase of charge density or distribution range of LPC region, lightning type changes from positive polarity IC lightning to negative CG flashes and then to inverted IC lightning. (2) Relative to distribution range of charge regions, the magnitude of charge density of the LPC region plays a dominant role in lightning type. Only when the maximal charge density value of LPC region is within a certain range, can negative CG flashes occur, and the occurrence probability is relatively fixed. (3) In this range, the charge density and distribution range of LPC region jointly determine the occurrence of negative CG flashes, which has a linear boundary with the trigger condition of IC lightning. (4) The common effect of charge density and distribution range of the LPC region is to change the distribution of positive potential well of bottom part of thunderstorms, and inverted IC lightning occurs when the initial reference potential is close to 0 MV, and negative CG flashes occur when the initial reference potential is far less than 0 MV.     

On the NOx production by laboratory electrical discharges and lightning

Different approaches are used in estimating the global production of NO_x by lightning flashes, including field measurements carried out during thunderstorm conditions, theoretical studies combining the physics and chemistry of the electrical discharges, and measurements of NO_x yield in laboratory sparks with subsequent extrapolation to lightning. In the latter procedure, laboratory data are extrapolated to lightning using the energy as the scaling quantity. Further, in these studies only the return strokes are considered assuming that contributions from other processes such as leaders, continuing currents, M components, and K processes are negligible. In this paper, we argue that the use of energy as the scaling quantity and omission of all lightning processes other than return strokes are not justified. First, a theory which can be used to evaluate the NO_x production by electrical discharges, if the current flowing in the discharge is known, is presented. The results obtained from theory are compared with the available experimental data and a reasonable agreement is found. Numerical experiments suggest that the NO_x production efficiency of electrical discharges depends not only on the energy dissipated in the discharge, but also on the shape of current waveform. Thus, the current signature, can influence extrapolation of laboratory data to lightning flashes. Second, an estimation of the NO_x yield per lightning flash is made by treating the lightning flash as a composite event consisting of several discharge processes. We show that the NO_x production takes place mainly in slow discharge processes such as leaders, M components, and continuing currents, with return strokes contributing only a small fraction of the total NO_x. The results also show that cloud flashes are as efficient as ground flashes in NO_x generation. In estimating the global NO_x production by lightning flashes the most influencing parameter is the length of the lightning discharge channel inside the cloud. For the total length of channels inside the cloud of a typical ground flash of about 45 km, we estimate that the global annual production of NO_x is about 4 Tg(N).     

Explosive action on resonance radio-frequency discharge in the Earth’s ionosphere

The effectiveness of explosive action, simultaneous with HF discharge lightning, has been studied for controlled modification of ionospheric plasma on large spatial scales and for ELF emission generation in the Earth’s magnetosphere. The solution of the MHD equations of slightly ionized plasma, modeling explosive action on radio-frequency discharge under the conditions of the lower ionosphere, has been presented. It has been established that geomagnetic field disturbance in the explosion central region can be about the undisturbed field value, which confirms the effectiveness of the proposed technique.     

The relation between the number of strokes,stroke intervals and the total durations of lightning discharges

Summary Although lightning flashes have been photographed which apparently have up to 40 or more component strokes, no flashes having more than 14 strokes have been observed on records of the eletrical fields of thunderstorms. The apparent discrepancy between the two methods of observation is explained by the fact that small momentary increases in the continuing current flowing to ground after some strokes, are easily mistaken for component strokes on photographs taken with slow cameras.After the cessation of a discharge, the ionization of the lightning channel decreases at such a rate that a subsequent discharge to earth will require a fresh leader if it follows within an interval longer than about 15 millisec; discharges following at shorter intervals are not preceded by leaders. The channel loses its ionization completely in about 100 millisec.In general, the larger the number of component strokes, the longer is the duration of the flash, but there is no definite relationship between the number of strokes and the duration.Flashes of exceptionally long duration always have one or more very long intervals between two successive strokes and during these intervals there appears to be very little electrical activity in the cloud; it is suggested that the main progress of the discharge in the cloud takes place during the shorter intervals, so that flashes of long duration do not necessarily drain very extensive regions of charge.I wish to thank the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for a grant in aid of this research.     

Spatial fine structure of model electric pulses in the mesosphere above a Γ-shaped stroke of lightning

The fine structure is discussed arising in the spatial distribution of the pulsed electric field above a Γ-shaped stroke of lightning. The channel of discharge contains a vertical and a horizontal section. The structured spatial distribution of field appears due to a superposition of three pulses arriving from vertical and horizontal sections of the causative discharge and from reflections from the ground. The details of electric field distribution depend on time and on the stroke orientation relative to an elevated observer. The characteristic size of ‘filaments’ in the transient electric field is about 1 km along the horizontal direction, while it reaches a few tens of kilometers along the vertical direction.     

Organic matter and fine grains as possible determinants of spatial and seasonal variability in bed sediment fauna: A case study from a Hercynian gravel stream

The spatial and seasonal distributions of organic matter and fine grains were tested as possible determinants of fauna distribution in bed sediment of a Hercynian gravel stream. Invertebrate densities and the amounts of fine grains and organic carbon were assessed in freeze-core samples taken along 70 cm depth profiles at three different positions in the stream channel. Sampling was conducted on five occasions of low discharge over two years. The variability in invertebrate community composition was analysed using Detrended Correspondence Analysis with posterior projection of explanatory variables; Variation Partitioning was used to estimate the independent and shared effects of the explanatory variables. We found that the best predictors of the invertebrate community were spatial variables (depth, position in the channel) and then variables influenced by seasonal patterns (surface water temperature and discharge). The influence of organic matter and fine grain content was significant only after eliminating spatial autocorrelation. High amounts of organic matter, randomly accumulated in the sediment, improved the model by explaining high fauna densities. The fine grain content was not a limiting factor to fauna at our study site. It is possible that the large amount of mica flakes in the sediment has caused the arrangement of grains with a pore space sufficient for fauna even when fine grain content was high.     

Solar Activity,Lightning and Climate

The physics of solar forcing of the climate and long term climate change is summarized, and the role of energetic charged particles (including cosmic rays) on cloud formation and their effect on climate is examined. It is considered that the cosmic ray-cloud cover hypothesis is not supported by presently available data and further investigations (during Forbush decreases and at other times) should be analyzed to further examine the hypothesis. Another player in climate is lightning through the production of NO_x; this greenhouse gas, water vapour in the troposphere (and stratosphere) and carbon dioxide influence the global temperature through different processes. The enhancement of aerosol concentrations and their distribution in the troposphere also affect the climate and may result in enhanced lightning activity. Finally, the roles of atmospheric conductivity on the electrical activity of thunderstorms and lightning discharges in relation to climate are discussed.