Characteristics of head wave in multi-layered half-space

Introduction Head wave is one of the main phases of local seismic arrivals, and it is important in the study of the crustal structure and the physical characteristics of the transition-zone between the crust and the mantle. So far, the kinetic characteristics of head wave such as arrival time have been widely used, while the dynamic characteristics of head wave like amplitude were usually ignored al-though it includes more information of the structure. In this article, we shall investigate the…     

THE APPLICATION OF PML BOUNDARY CODITIONS IN THE SIMULATION OF SEISMIC WAVE BY THE HIGH-ORDER STAGGERED-GRID FINITE DIFFERENCES AT THE TRANSVERSELY ISOTROPIC MEDIA

In the realm of the numerical simulation, finite difference method and finite element method are more intuitive and effective than other simulation methods. In the process of simulating seismic wave propagation, the finite differences method is widely used because of its high computational efficiency and the advantage of the algorithm is more efficient. With the demand of precision, more and more researchers have proposed more effective methods of finite differences, such as the high-order staggered-grid finite differences method, which can restore the actual process of wave propagation on the premise of ensuring accuracy and improving the efficiency of operation. In the past numerical simulation of seismic wave field, different models of isotropic medium are mostly used, but it is difficult to reflect the true layer situation. With the research demand of natural seismology and seismic exploration, the research on anisotropic media is more and more extensive. Transversely isotropic(TI)media can well simulate the seismic wave propagation in the formation medium, such as gas-bearing sandstone, mudstone, shale et al., the character of TI media is reflected by introducing the Thomsen parameters to reflect its weak anisotropy of vertical direction by using Thomson parameter. Therefore, studying the process of seismic wave propagation in TI media can restore the true information of the formation to the greatest extent, and provide a more reliable simulation basis for the numerical simulation of seismic wave propagation. In the geodynamic simulation and the numerical simulation of the seismic wave field, under the limited influence of the calculation area, if no boundary conditions are added, a strong artificial boundary reflection will be generated, which greatly reduces the validity of the simulation. In order to minimize the influence of model boundaries on the reflection of seismic waves, it is often necessary to introduce absorbing boundary conditions. At present, there are three types of absorption boundary conditions: one-way wave absorption boundary, attenuation absorption boundary, and perfectly matched layer(PML)absorption boundary. In terms of numerical simulation of seismic waves, the boundary absorption effect of PML is stronger than the first two, which is currently the most commonly used method, and it also represents the cutting-edge development direction of absorption boundary technology. The perfectly matched layer absorbing boundary is effectively applied to eliminating the reflective waves from model boundaries, but for transversely isotropic medium, the effect of the absorbing is not very well. For this reason, the elastic dynamic wave equations in transversely isotropic media are derived, and we describe a second-order accurate time, tenth-order accurate space, formulation of the Madariaga-Virieux staggered-grid finite difference methods with the perfectly matched layer(PML)are given. In addition, we have established vertical transversely isotropic(VTI)media and arbitrary inclined tilted transversely isotropic(TTI)media models, using a uniform half-space velocity model and a two-layer velocity model, respectively. By combining the actual geoscience background, we set the corresponding parameters and simulation conditions in order to make our model more research-oriented. When setting model parameters, different PML thickness, incident angle, source frequency and velocity layer models were transformed to verify the inhibition of boundary reflection effect by PML absorption boundary layer. The implementations of this simulation show that the formula is correct and for the transversely isotropic(TI)media of any angular symmetry axis, when the thickness of the PML layer reaches a certain value, the seismic wave reflection effect generated by the artificial boundary can be well suppressed, and the absorption effect of PML is not subject to changes in incident angle and wave frequency. Therefore, the results of our study indicate that our research method can be used to simulate the propagation process of seismic waves in the transversely isotropic(TI)media without being affected by the reflected waves at the model boundary to restore the actual formation information and more valuable geological research.     

垂向非均匀介质中首波特征分析

利用合成理论地震图方法研究了存在高速层或低速层的地壳模型及壳-幔过渡带模型中首波等震相的动力学特征，指出首波的特征对于高速层的结构变化比较敏感．当高速层厚度与特征波长相比较小时，地震波的衍射现象明显，这种情况下高速层不能屏蔽在其下面一层的上界面传播的首波，且该首波震相的强度随高速层厚度或速度的增加而递减；当高速层厚度与特征波长相当时，高速层底面的反射波震相与首波震相到时接近，会因互相干涉而减弱；对于低速层，首波震相强度较弱且随低速层速度的减小而递减；在壳-幔间断处引入一定厚度和速度变化范围的过渡带，可以得到更加明显的视首波震相，强度随过渡带厚度或速度变化范围的增加而增大．      

Validity of the long-wave approximation in periodically layered media

In seismic modelling, a stack of thin layers is often replaced by an effective equivalent anisotropic homogeneous slab. For waves with finite wavelength, this is an approximation, and the error thus introduced can be quantified by considering the relative error in the phase velocity between the layer stack and the effective medium. For periodic layering, the relative phase-velocity error can be expressed in closed form as a function of wavelength, reflection coefficients and layer thicknesses. By comparing the relative phase-velocity error with laboratory measurements and numerical simulations, we find that the difference in seismic response between a periodic layer stack and an equivalent effective medium depends not only on wavelength, but it also depends significantly on reflection coefficients and the ratio between layer thicknesses. For a 1% relative error in the phase velocity, and if all layers have the same thickness measured in vertical traveltime, we find that the wavelength must be larger than approximately three times the layer period for a reflection coefficient of 0.1, but this increases to 13 times the layer period for a reflection coefficient of 0.9, which is highly unrealistic in a geological setting.     

煤层中流体地震可探测性的模拟分析

作为一种典型的强阻抗差低阻抗薄层,煤层中孔隙含流体时是否会引起地震反射产生明显的异常是回答地震检测流体是否可行的根本.为此,本文针对强阻抗差薄层模型,基于Biot双相介质理论,通过弹性波有限差分法数值模拟,与各向同性单相介质假设的煤层反射对比,探讨了反射复合波受煤层孔隙度及流体性质变化的影响程度.模拟分析发现：由于薄层孔隙度和孔隙流体属性的变化在Biot理论中表现为纵波速度的变化,PP波反射AVO（Amplitude Versus Offset,振幅随偏移距变化）特征对薄层是否含流体相对敏感;综合使用PP与PS波对比有利于薄层中流体的预测;孔隙度一定时,PP波反射振幅随着含气饱和度的增加而增大;受薄层调谐作用的影响,孔隙和流体变化对煤层反射的频谱特征影响不大,近似于单相介质时的情况.     

SsPmp震相地壳探测方法

SsPmp波是远震S波经地表反射转换的P波在莫霍面发生反射后被地表台站接收得到的震相.震中距在30°~50°之间的远震S波震相经地表反射转换的P波射线参数较大,在莫霍面发生全反射,使得台站接收的SsPmp波具有较强的能量,能够从地震记录中清楚地识别出来,为探测台站附近的莫霍面形态提供新的途径.本文通过合成理论地震图分析了SsPmp震相与地壳厚度、射线参数和Pn波速度之间的关系.结果表明:对于水平界面,地壳厚度只影响SsPmp与Ss波之间的相对到时差;Pn波速度只影响SsPmp的相位;射线参数既对SsPmp波的相对到时有影响,也会引起SsPmp波的相位变化.对于复杂的界面,SsPmp反映的深度与速度梯度最大的深度接近,而反映的Pn波速度与实际的Pn波速度一致.     

Utilizing spectral decomposition to determine the distribution of injected CO2 at the Snøhvit Field

Time‐lapse 3D seismic reflection data, covering the CO₂ storage operation at the Snøhvit gas field in the Barents Sea, show clear amplitude and time‐delay differences following injection. The nature and extent of these changes suggest that increased pore fluid pressure contributes to the observed seismic response, in addition to a saturation effect. Spectral decomposition using the smoothed pseudo‐Wigner–Ville distribution has been used to derive discrete‐frequency reflection amplitudes from around the base of the CO₂ storage reservoir. These are utilized to determine the lateral variation in peak tuning frequency across the seismic anomaly as this provides a direct proxy for the thickness of the causative feature. Under the assumption that the lateral and vertical extents of the respective saturation and pressure changes following CO₂ injection will be significantly different, discrete spectral amplitudes are used to distinguish between the two effects. A clear spatial separation is observed in the distribution of low‐ and high‐frequency tuning. This is used to discriminate between direct fluid substitution of CO₂, as a thin layer, and pressure changes that are distributed across a greater thickness of the storage reservoir. The results reveal a striking correlation with findings derived from pressure and saturation discrimination algorithms based on amplitude versus offset analysis.     

DETECTION AND RESOLUTION OF THIN LAYERS: A MODEL SEISMIC STUDY1

The detection and resolution of a thin layer closely situated above a high-impedance basement are predominantly determined by both the frequency content of the incident seismic wavelet and the existence of the nearby high-impedance bedrock. The separation of the thin layer and the basement arrivals is investigated depending on the low-frequency content of the wavelet. The high-frequency content of the wavelet is kept constant. The initial wavelet spectrum with low frequencies has a rectangular shape. All wavelets used have zero-phase characteristics. Numerical and analogue seismic modelling techniques are used. The study is based on the geology of the Pachangchi Sandstone in West Taiwan. Firstly the resolution of a thin layer between two half-spaces is examined by applying the Ricker and De Voogd-Den Rooijen criteria. The lack of low-frequency components of the incident seismic wavelet reduces the shortest true two-way traveltime by about 20%. In addition, low-frequency components of the wavelet diminish the deviation between true and apparent two-way traveltime by about 65% for layer thicknesses in the transition from a thick to a thin layer. The second step deals with the influence of a high-impedance basement just below a thin layer on the detection and resolution of that thin layer. Reflected signal energies and apparent two-way traveltimes are considered. The reflected signal energy depends on the low-frequency content of the incident wavelet, the layer's thickness and the distance between the basement and the layer. This applies only to layers with thicknesses less than or equal to one-third of the mean wavelength in the layer, and a distance to basement in the range of one to one-half of the mean wavelength in the rock material between layer and basement. The minimum thin-layer thickness resolvable decreases with increasing distance to the basement; i.e. for a layer thickness of one-third of the mean wavelength in the layer the relative error of the two-way traveltime increases from 5% to 30%, if the distance is reduced from one to one-half of the mean wavelength in the material between the basement and the thin layer. Finally, a combination of vertical seismic profiling and downward-continuation techniques is presented as a preprocessing procedure to prepare realistic data for the detection and resolution investigation.     

基于频率域峰值属性的河道砂体定量预测及应用(英文)

河道砂体是陆相含油气盆地最重要的储集类型之一,其边界识别和厚度定量预测是储层预测的热点难题。本文在总结现有方法技术的基础上,提出一种利用频率域峰值属性进行河道砂体边界识别和厚度定量预测的新方法。对典型河道薄砂体地震反射进行了正演模拟,构造了一种新的地震属性——峰值频率-振幅比,研究表明:峰值频率属性对地层厚度变化敏感,振幅属性对地层岩性变化敏感,两者比值突出河道砂体的边界,同时,借助峰值频率与薄层厚度间存在的定量关系进行薄砂体厚度计算。实际数据应用表明,地震峰值频率属性可以较好的刻画河道的平面展布特征;峰值频率-振幅比属性可以提高对河道砂体边界的识别能力;利用频率域地震属性进行砂体边界识别及厚度定量预测是可行的。     

频谱成像技术在稠油热采地震监测中的应用

频谱成像技术可有效的描述地质反射层厚度的非连续性和岩性的非均质性,其在理论上主要是依据薄层反射的调谐原理,过去通常采用以离散傅里叶变换为基础的算法,但是,该方法存在着明显的局限性,因为估算的地震振幅谱的重要特征是所选时窗长度的函数.如果所选时窗过短,振幅谱会与变换窗函数褶积,失去频率的局部化特征,而且过短的时窗会使子波的旁瓣呈现为单一反射的假象.增加时窗长度,会改善频率的分辨率.但如果所选时窗过长,时窗内的多个反射会使振幅谱以槽痕为特征,很难分清单个反射的振幅谱特征.由于在实际运用中,以傅里叶变换相关的算法的时窗问题,难以选择好时窗长度,而且无法定量分析时窗长度产生的偏差,因而会使振幅谱的估算产生偏差.以小波变换为基础的时频分析技术成了非平稳性信号的重要分析工具,在很多实际应用中已取代了傅里叶变换的分析方法.以小波变换为基础的瞬时谱分析技术能得到精确的时频分析结果,同时避免了时窗问题.它反映出了储层在纵向上时间及厚度上变化情况和横向上的地质不连续性的信息,因此能使解释人员快速而有效地描述储层特征的空间变化.     

平面声波在粗糙界面上的反射特征研究

基于有关粗糙界面的Rayleigh假设，讨论了平面声波按余弦规律快速变化的小尺度粗糙界面上的反射特征.研究表明：这类界面与位于该位置的一个过渡地层的作用相当.该过渡层的厚度为粗糙界面的起伏幅度，速度和密度为上下两层介质相应量的平均值.研究了埋藏很深的微粗糙界面所引起的地震反射（绕射）波的频散特性和走时的构成，即包含零炮检距反射时间、正常时差和界面粗糙时差三部分内容.该粗糙时差与空间坐标和时间坐标无关，与绕射波的阶次有关，绕射波尾随在反射波之后以某一固定的时差出现.且只有当界面的粗糙波长与地震波的波长相当时，才能观测到这类绕射波.该结论为粗糙界面地震反射资料的处理方法提供了理论依据.     

大容量气枪震源陆地反射地震探测——以长江中下游铜陵地区为例

为了实验大容量气枪震源陆地水体流动激发反射地震探测效果,在长江中下游安徽省铜陵段,采用气枪船长江航道流动激发、沿江岸布设反射地震仪器接收的非纵弯线工作方式,得到了反映测线经过地区地壳深部结构和构造特征的反射地震数据。原始资料信噪比较低,但部分资料不同部位仍可辨认出来自地壳及莫霍面反射波组。就传播距离而言,地震波传播的水平距离最大可达21km,垂直深度可达30km以上。在数据处理中,根据原始资料特点,针对性采用了非纵弯线面元定义、三维层析静校正、叠前多域去噪及组合反褶积技术,最终得到的叠加时间剖面上具有丰富的壳内反射波组。结果显示,测线经过地区的地壳结构为双层结构,总厚度为30.0～36.0km。上地壳呈现隆坳相间的反射特征,下地壳存在多组叠层状弧型反射波组,莫霍面反射特征清晰,由2～3个反射同相轴组成,呈现SW端向NE段抬升的形态。剖面经过地区存在一个切穿下地壳和莫霍面的深部断裂,应该是长江深断裂的反映。研究结果充分说明,大容量气枪震源可应用于陆地流动水体地壳精细结构的深地震反射探测。     

地震方法确定活动断裂上断点的影响因素分析

中国不少城市位于较厚的第四纪松散沉积物覆盖区,在这些松散层内,发育了许多具有相当规模的隐伏断裂,用地震方法能够探测到它们的存在。但用地震方法探测到的这些隐伏断裂的上断点是否代表了真正意义的断裂上断点?文中在讨论地震记录分辨率的基础上,探讨了影响地震勘探效果的记录信噪比、地质构造条件以及资料处理和解释方法:为提高地震记录的信噪比和分辨率,需要采取相应的技术措施,如在数据采集过程中,使敷设的地震剖面垂直断裂走向,在保证地震记录具有较高信噪比的条件下,采用合适的覆盖次数和小道间距接收的工作方法有助于获取更浅波阻抗界面的反射波;在数据处理和解释的过程中,准确求取反射波的速度,采用一些提高地震记录分辨率和信噪比的处理技术,摒弃一些混波处理手段,有助于改善利用地震方法探测隐伏断裂上断点的效果。而对于没有波阻抗差异的地层界面,包括隐伏断裂已经错断的那些地层界面,地震方法则难以对其进行探测。即使地震方法探测到的不一定是真正意义上的隐伏断层上断点,其结果依然可为今后钻孔剖面位置的布设、钻孔深度的设计以及断层活动性的判定提供科学依据。     

VLF SURVEY OF THE WEATHERED LAYER IN SOUTHERN INDIA*

The electrical properties of the weathered layer were investigated by means of Geonics VLF-EM 16/16R equipment in two areas of the Andhra Pradesh State. The resistivity and thickness of the weathered layer were found to be variable even over a small survey area. In the area underlain by Precambrian granite-gneiss, most of the recorded VLF-EM anomalies were caused by variations in the resistivity of the weathered layer. Changes in thickness were well reflected in the VLF-EMR curves. The second area was underlain by Cretaceous basalts and dolerites. Quantitative interpretation of the VLF-EMR data with a simple one-dimensional model yielded considerable detail about the weathered layer. For the granitic area, a prior estimate of at least one resistivity parameter of the ground is required. If this is not already available, a limited amount of direct-current resistivity surveying can provide the required information. A study of the EMR data from the basaltic area revealed the presence of a thin, highly conductive layer between the weathered layer and the bedrock. The parameters of this layer were found to be variable, making it necessary to use a set of diagrams for quantitative interpretation. Due to the presence of this highly conductive layer, the EMR data contain little information on the bedrock resistivity. Our field studies suggest that the VLF-EMR method can be used as a fast and inexpensive tool for mapping of the weathered layer in tropical regions with hard rock geology. Such mapping is of considerable importance because the weathered layer is an important source of groundwater.     

Integrating seismic attributes in the accurate modeling of geological structures and determining the storage of the gas reservoir in Gorgan Plain (North of Iran)

Three dimensional seismic operation of Gorgan Plain was studied around a well, which is situated in North of Iran following the hitting of a thin overpressure gas layer (thickness of 9.6 m), with the purpose of the accurate modeling of geological structures and determining the approximate gas storages. The geological structures of the reservoir were modeled using the seismic attributes (coherence, instantaneous amplitude and spectral decomposition (FFT)). The obtained results clearly demonstrated the shape and volume of the existing structural traps in the studied area. In order to estimate the thickness of gas layer in the 3D seismic volume and determining the gas storage, the thickness changes based on the seismic amplitudes were used because its thickness was less than the critical resolution thickness for this layer. However, due to its low thickness, the lack of indicator peak in seismic sections and strong faults of area, it was difficult to pursue this layer in the seismic volume and map its exact amplitude. Considering this issue, a new method with integrating of seismic attributes was recommended. First, the instantaneous amplitude attribute of the thin reservoir layer reflector in computed synthetic seismogram were fabricated and then the frequency regarding the highest amount (dominant frequency) was chosen by Fourier Transform. Finally, spectral decomposition (FFT) with the resulting frequency was gained over the cross-section of the layer's instantaneous amplitude attribute in the 3D seismic volume choosing a proper time window. In such a situation, an increase of its thickness was seen as its amplitude increase and the minimum gas storage of this reservoir was calculated using the area of the restricted part of high thickness (over 9.6 m).     

柴达木东盆地的深层地震反射波和地壳构造

一、引言 地壳和上地幔顶部的构造,对研究地震发生、发展及演变过程的深部背景,以及划分地震活动块体和探讨地震成因有着重要的意义。然而地壳构造的研究,又是与地震学的发展密切相关。1909年,莫霍洛维奇在近震研究中,首先发现了地壳与上地幔分界面的首波,其覆盖层的平均速度 =6.3公里/秒,界面速度V_d=8.0公里/秒（简称M界面）。后于1923年,康拉德（conrad）也是根据天然地震资料鉴别出一个平均速度为=5.4     

表层沉积物特性对地震地面运动的影响研究

建立包含震源、沉积盆地和表层低速沉积层的二维模型,采用交错网格有限差分/伪谱混合方法求解地震波传播,讨论沉积层厚度和速度对地震地面运动的作用。结果表明:沉积层内产生的地震波的多重反射以及转换会引起地面运动持续时间的延长,它们的相干叠加会造成地面运动峰值的放大;随着沉积层速度的增加,多重反射与转换波的能量减小,地面运动持续时间减小,但是不同速度或者不同厚度的低速层模型均显示出一致的地面运动峰值放大特征。结果说明,在包含震源、沉积盆地和沉积层的模型中,沉积层对地面运动的作用机理更复杂。在实际应用中有必要同时考虑这些因素的综合作用。     

TUNING EFFECTS,LITHOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND DEPOSITIONAL EFFECTS IN THE SEISMIC RESPONSE OF GAS RESERVOIRS*

Synergism of 3-D seismic data, wavelet processing, colour display and interactive interpretation has been exploited in the study of a Gulf of Mexico gas reservoir. Seismic amplitude has been used as a measure of the proportion of a sand/shale reservoir capable of producing gas. This has led to the mapping of net producible thickness of gas sand. The tuning phenomena resulting from geometric effects alone were studied in detail, and tuning curves of various levels of sophistication were used as the basis for amplitude editing. Statistical tuning curves were derived by interactive cross-plotting and deterministic curves by wavelet extraction. Multiple wavelet side lobes cause multiple maxima in the tuning curve. Depositional effects and intrareservoir communication have also been studied by interactive cross-plotting.     

Estimating the elastic parameters of anisotropic media using a joint inversion of P-wave and SV-wave traveltime error

A method is presented to estimate the elastic parameters and thickness of media that are locally laterally homogeneous using P‐wave and vertically polarized shear‐wave (SV‐wave) data. This method is a ‘layer‐stripping’ technique, and it uses many aspects of common focal point (CFP) technology. For each layer, a focusing operator is computed using a model of the elastic parameters with which a CFP gather can be constructed using the seismic data. Assuming local homogeneity, the resulting differential time shifts (DTSs) represent error in the model due to anisotropy and error in thickness. In the (τ?p) domain, DTSs are traveltimes Δτ that connect error in layer thickness z, vertical slowness q, and ray parameter p. Series expansion is used to linearize Δτ with respect to error in the elastic parameters and thickness, and least‐squares inversion is used to update the model. For stability, joint inversion of P and SV data is employed and, as pure SV data are relatively rare, the use of mode‐converted (PSV) data to represent SV in the joint inversion is proposed. Analytic and synthetic examples are used to demonstrate the utility and practicality of this inversion.     

THE INFLUENCE OF OBLIQUELY DIPPING DISCONTINUITIES ON THE USE OF RAYLEIGH CHANNEL WAVES FOR THE IN-SEAM SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD *

The geological sequence rock-coal-rock represents a seismic low-velocity channel. Channel waves generated in a coal seam and their reflections from discontinuities can be used for proving the minability of the seam. To investigate the process of reflection, two-dimensional models of the sequence rock-coal-rock have been investigated by means of the ultrasonic transducer technique. Two-dimensional models have the advantage that the wave field can be observed at an arbitrarily chosen point of the model plate. Thus, by means of these models the direct and the reflected Rayleigh channel wave can be observed along their path of propagation. From the geophysical point of view the various types of discontinuities of a coal seam can be divided into two basic types: one is restricted to the seam, the other includes in addition a fractured zone in the adjoining rock. The investigation of the symmetrical Rayleigh channel wave reflected by a discontinuity yields the following results: For dip angles γ between approximately 90° and approximately 60° the reflectivity is virtually independent of the type of discontinuity. This does not hold for the limiting case of γ= 90° (vertical dip) for which the reflectivity increases with increasing influence of the fractured zone. For dip angles γ between approximately 60° and approximately 40° the reflectivity is still independent of the fractured zone but the shape of the reflected wave deteriorates with increasing influence of the fractured zone. For dip angles γ below approximately 40° the reflected wave deteriorates such that the application of the in-seam seismic reflection method will be difficult or even impossible. The conversion of the direct wave of the symmetrical fundamental mode into a reflected wave of the antisymmetrical fundamental mode has been observed.