The practical salinity scale 1978 and its antecedents

The history of the definition of salinity and the methods of computing It are traced from the beginning of the twentieth century until the present. Difficulties that have arisen in existing practices are discussed, in particular, the situation regarding reduction of in-situ CTD observations. The Practical Salinity Scale 1978 is an attempt to remove the shortcomings; it has been recommended for international acceptance. The basis for this new scale is an equation relating the ratio of the electrical conductivity of the seawater sample to that of a standard potassium chloride solution (KCI) at15degC atmospheric pressure. The samples used were prepared from standard seawater diluted with distilled water or evaporated by weight. Finally, the set of new equations for CTD data reduction is given, based upon the work of authors whose papers are appearing elsewhere in this volume.     

The concentration of the KCl solution whose conductivity is that of standard seawater (35 ‰) at 15°C

The concentration of the potassium chloride solution (KCI) which has the same conductivity as15degC at P79 standard seawater corrected to35.0000permilhas been evaluated. The variation of the conductivity ratio of KCI solutions to standard seawater (35permil) has been measured between 14.8 and15.2degC for KCI solutions whose concentration varies from 32 to 33 g.kg^-1.     

基于电导率测定海水悬沙含量试验研究

为了寻求一种简单、快速、连续确定悬浮泥沙含量的方法,以高含沙量海区黄河口泥沙为研究对象,利用电导率仪测定了不同悬浮泥沙含量水体的电导率,建立起了悬浮泥沙含量与电导率之间的关系,并对影响上述关系的因素进行了分析,结果表明,悬浮泥沙含量与电导率之间有很好的线性关系;盐度、颗粒粒径对电导率具有一定的影响,其中盐度的影响最大,颗粒粒径的影响较小。在盐度变化范围有限的高悬沙含量海区,用电导率的方法来实现现场监测悬浮泥沙含量是可行的。     

Determination of the concentration of potassium chloride solution having the same electrical conductivity, at 15°C and infinite frequency, as standard seawater of salinity 35.0000 ‰ (Chlorinity 19.37394 ‰)

The absolute electrical conductivity at15degC of several lots of standard seawater has been measured with great precision as a function of chlorinity. Potassium chloride (KCI) solutions of known concentration and having almost the same conductivity were also measured and the concentration giving the same conductivity at15degC as35.0000permilstandard seawater (Chl =19.37394permil) was found to be 32.4352 g/kg.     

A comparison of the temperature coefficients of electrical conductivity of Atlantic and Pacific seawaters

The Practical Salinity Scale 1978 (PSS) defines the relationship among salinity, electrical conductivity, temperature, and pressure. Strictly speaking, the PSS is only applicable to waters with the same relative chemical composition as standard seawater. We have tested the predictions of the PSS for samples of Atlantic and Pacific waters. The results indicate that the PSS is valid for these natural seawaters over the defined temperature range of the scale.     

Practical versus absolute salinity measurements: New advances in high performance seawater salinity sensors

Optical salinity sensors described here measure directly the seawater refractive index and thus enable a measurement of the seawater density and composition variation. We detail the measurement dependence to environmental parameters (in particular temperature and pressure) compared to conductivity sensors, and demonstrate that it may be advantageous to directly measure refractive index rather than electrical conductivity and so obtain a more direct route to density and absolute salinity.     

悬浮泥沙含量与电导率关系及其影响因素的实验研究

为了寻求一种简单、快速、连续测定悬浮泥沙含量的方法,以高含沙量海区黄河口泥沙为研究对象,利用电导率仪测定了不同悬浮泥沙含量水体的电导率。前期实验结果已经证明悬浮泥沙含量与电导率之间有很好的线性关系。在此基础上扩大研究范围,并对影响悬浮泥沙含量与电导率关系的因素进行定量分析,结果表明,盐度、温度、颗粒粒径对电导率具有一定的影响,其中盐度的影响最大,颗粒粒径的影响最小,几乎可以忽略。在此基础上通过大量的实验数据初步建立起在盐度、温度较大变化范围内电导率与泥沙含量的一般函数关系,为实现海水悬浮泥沙含量的现场电导率原位监测系统提供可靠的数据支持。     

The electrical conductivity of weight diluted and concentrated standard seawater as a function of salinity and temperature

The ratiosR_{s,t,o}of electrical conductivity of seawater samples of precisely known salinity to standard seawater at the same temperature have been measured over a wide range of salinities from 0 to42permilS and over the full range of oceanic temperatures from -2 to35degC. The samples withS<35permilwere prepared by accurate weight dilution of standard seawater with distilled water. High salinity samples were prepared by fast evaporation of standard seawater and subsequent weight dilution into the already determined <35permilrange. An equation was derived which expresses the S versusR_{s,t,o}relationship very precisely from1-42permiland at all temperatures, i.e.,S = f_{1}(R_{s,t,o}) + f_{2}(R_{s, t,o},t) =Sigma_{n=0}^{5} a_{n}R^{n/2}+ frac{Delta t}{1+kDelta t} Sigma_{n=0}^{5} b_{n}R^{n/2}whereDelta t = t-15degC,R = R_{s, t.o}; only the first termf_{1}is required at15degC. The effeet of temperature on the electrical conductivity of standard seawater was also measured. The ratior_{t}of the conductivity at temperaturetto the conductivity at15degC (C_{35,t, o}/C_{35,15,o}) is very aeenrately expressed by a fourth degree equation int. i.e,r_{t}=Sigma_{n=0}^{4} c_{n}t^{n}These two equations are sufficient for all salinity determinations at normal atmospheric pressure.     

悬浮泥沙含量与电导率关系及其影响因素的实验研究

为了寻求一种简单、快速、连续测定悬浮泥沙含量的方法,以高含沙量海区黄河口泥沙为研究对象,利用电导率仪测定了不同悬浮泥沙含量水体的电导率.前期实验结果已经证明悬浮泥沙含量与电导率之间有很好的线性关系.在此基础上扩大研究范围,并对影响悬浮泥沙含量与电导率关系的因素进行定量分析,结果表明,盐度、温度、颗粒粒径对电导率具有一定...     

盐度定义狭义性与广义性

通过理论分析和实验验证,论述了“实用盐标”、“氯度盐标”定义的狭义性及应用范围,指出电导法和氯度法测定保守性质样品,数据正确;而测定非保守性质样品,测定值偏离绝对盐度S_a.笔者建议的“密度盐标”属于广义性质,可广泛应用于保守和非保守性质样品.密度盐标具有的优点是:(1)不受样品组成变化影响,只与溶液质量和浮力有关,测定值有高度可靠性与重现性;(2)测定大洋水盐度与现有实用盐度值相同,测定工业水盐度较实用盐度、氯度盐度值更接近绝对盐度S_a;(3)在已知溶质情况下,应用溶液膨胀系数和物质偏摩尔体积校正系数可统一溶质浓度与盐度的换算关系.     

High Resolution Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) in a Transition Zone Environment: Application for Detailed Internal Architecture and Infilling Processes Study of a Rhône River Paleo-channel

Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) was applied in a sand-infilled paleo-channel located in the Rhône Delta, in Southern France. The detailed pattern and sedimentological evolution of the channel fill deposits – know from both historical and geological sources – made it the ideal site to test the ERT method. A geoelectrical survey was performed, using the ABEM SAS-4000 multi-electrode array system in March 2003. Very low electrical resistivity values were obtained, ranging from 0.3 to 10 Ohm m, consistent with the high salinity measured in situ (the pore water conductivity was found to range from 0.9 to 1.2 S/m at 25 °C). The electrical resistivity profiles reflect mainly salinity variations. Indeed, in this case, salinity is so high that surface conductivity associated with clay minerals can be safely neglected. ERT provided valuable high-resolution information that complemented other exiting data such as historical information, bathymetric, geological, and lithostratigraphic data, which allowed the architecture of the channel to be defined. The ERT was used to determine the infilling dynamics of the Pégoulier Channel, which opens new perspectives in terms of paleoenvironmental reconstruction and paleodynamic studies.     

Narrow and broad senses on salinity scale

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The effect of concentration and temperature on the conductivity ratio of potassium chloride solutions to standard seawater of salinity 35 ‰(Cl 19.3740 ‰)

The ratiosZ_{K,t}of electrical conductivities of potassium chloride (KCI) solutions of known concentration (K) to standard seawater at the same temperature have been measured at15degC and24degC for solutions withZ_{k,15}between 0.96 and 1.04. The "normal" concentration (N or K_{N}) givingZ_{N,15}= 1was found to beK_{N} = 32.4356gKCI/kg solution. The effect of temperature onZ_{N,t}was measured over the range15degC to30degC. Equations are given for KCI concentration as a function ofZ_{15}and the inverse function, forZ_{15}/Z_{24}as a function ofZ_{24}(to allow use of a laboratory salinometer for the KCI-seawater comparisons), andZ_{N,t}as a function of temperature.     

碘化钾碱性高锰酸钾法测量海水化学需氧量不确定度的研究

葡萄糖与谷氨酸以1:1的比例配制成标准物质,用人工海水和标准物质配制成系列标准溶液,根据碘化钾碱性高锰酸钾法对系列标准溶液的测量结果,获得了海水COD测量不确定度在全量程范围内的分布规律,即测量不确定度在高端大不恒定,在低端小恒定。     

The Practical Salinity Scale 1978: Fitting the data

Three equations have been fitted to new data relating the electrical conductivity of seawater to the Practical Salinity Scale 1978. These equations have been designed for the reduction of in-situ measurements of temperature, pressure, and conductivity from anywhere in the world oceans. The standard deviation of the fit is roughly equivalent topm0.0015permilin salinity depending on the pressure at which the data is taken and, as such is commensurate with the best accuracy attainable with modern instruments.     

A portable salinometer based on direct measurement of the conductivity ratioR_{t}

A new portable salinometer has been developed which is based On a direct determination of the conductivity ratioR_{t} = (C_{x}/ C_{s})_{t}of sample(x)to standard(s)seawater in a dual-cell, continuous-flow system. The new salinometer requires only 10 ml of unknown and much less of standard, drawn from the source bottles through fine Teflon tubes, to obtain complete flushing and several repeat readings to the order ofpm0.001, in salinity. The system is autobalancing over the full range of conductivity ratio from 0 to 1.3 and in the future will be direct reading in salinity units. The amount of standard water required is so low that standard water ampoules, at the rate of l/day, can be used as the source. The method used offers a possibility of a direct measurement of salinity in the ocean by measuringR_{t}in situ.     

海水中钾的测定——交流示波极谱滴定在海水分析中的应用(Ⅰ)

研究用交流示波极谱测定海水中钾的方法。海水试样用NaOH调节pH约12,加入过量四苯硼化钠标准溶液,用微孔滤膜(或滤纸)过滤沉淀。收集游液,用TI(Ⅰ)标准溶液滴定过量的四苯基硼离子。方法回收率为99.5％。测定结果与四苯硼化钾重量法结果一致。海水中共存离子不干扰测定,并可用于海水及多种盐溶液中钾的测定。本法因其简便、快速、准确而易于推广。     

Calculation of electric conductivity of water of the Aral Sea and correction of the sound salinity of 2002–2009

The Aral Sea is an important water area both for monitoring and oceanological studies, because its salinity and salt composition strongly differ from the oceanic. We offer a semiempiric calculation method of electric conductivity and the coefficient of its temperature dependence k judging from the ionic composition of water. The properties of the solution are considered as the sum of properties of seven binary salts taken based on the ionic composition of the solution. The MgSO₄ concentration is thought to be the highest possible, which makes the salt concentration nearly unambiguous. In a salinity range of 46–120‰ and temperature range of 5–25°C (2002–2009), the standard deviation of the calculated and measured electric conductivity was 2.9%. To refine the calculation of salinity from electric conductivity measurements using the “oceanic” formula, we suggest its preliminary reduction to a constant temperature (20°C) using the measured or calculated coefficient k.     

Argo浮标电导率漂移误差检测及其校正方法探讨

文章引入位势电导比(potential conductivity ratio)的概念,对一个在西北太平洋上观测时间长达4a的Argo剖面浮标进行了诊断分析,并利用现场CTD资料和简单的误差消除法,对该浮标由电导率传感器漂移所产生的盐度误差进行了校正处理,且与目前同际上公认的WJO方法进行了比较,发现利用现场CTD资料校正Argo浮标长期观测所产生的盐度误差更直观、更简便,其校正结果也是可信的。     

Conductivity/salinity/temperature relationship of diluted and concentrated standard seawater

The conductivity ratio of diluted and concentrated standard seawater has been measured very accurately in a salinity range from 0 to42permiland at temperature from -1 to30degC. All the data have been fitted into polynomials which are compared with previous data. The specific conductance of seawater is deduced and a polynomial for the full range of salinity and temperature is proposed. Data presented in this paper have been used, with those of Dauphinee presented in this issue, to elaborate the new "Practical Salinity Scale 1978."