Jet flow over foredunes

Jet flows, which are localized flows exhibiting a high speed maxima, are relatively common in nature, and in many devices. They have only been occasionally observed on dunes, and their dynamics are poorly known. This paper examines computational fluid dynamic (CFD) two‐dimensional (2D) modelling of jet flow over a foredune topography. Flow was simulated in 10° increments from onshore (0°) to highly oblique alongshore (70°) incident wind approach angles. CFD modelling reveals that the formation of a jet is not dependent on a critical wind speed, and an increase in incident wind velocity does not affect the magnitude of jet flow. A jet is first formed at ~1.0 m seawards of the foredune crest on the Prince Edward Island foredune morphology example examined here. A jet is not developed when the incident wind is from an oblique approach angle greater than ~50° because there is significantly less flow acceleration across a much lower slope at this incident angle. The presence of a scarp does influence the structure of the crest jet, in that the jet is more pronounced where a scarp is present. Surface roughness affects the magnitude of jet expansion and jets are better developed on bare surfaces compared to vegetated ones. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modeling of occurrence frequencies of ion conics as a function of altitude and conic angle

The occurrence frequencies of dayside ion conics with various conic angles are obtained as a function of altitude from Exos-D (Akebono) observations. We made a model calculation of ion conic evolution to match the observation results. The observed occurrence frequencies of ion conics with 80° to 90° conic angle are used as an input to the model and the occurrence frequencies of ion conics with smaller conic angles are numerically calculated at higher altitudes. The calculated occurrence frequencies are compared with the observed ones of ion conics with smaller conic angles. We take into account conic angle variation with altitude in both adiabatic and non-adiabatic cases, horizontal extension of ion conics due to E × B drift, and evolution to elevated conics and ion beams in the model. In the adiabatic case, the conic angle decreases with increasing altitude much faster than was observed. The occurrence frequency of small-angle conics is much larger than the observed value without E × B drift and evolution to the other UFIs. An agreement is obtained by assuming non-adiabatic variation of conic angles with altitude and an ion E × B drift to gyro velocity ratio of 0.08 to 0.6, depending on geomagnetic activities.     

宽频带海底地震仪的地震重定位对马尼拉俯冲板片形态的约束

将宽频带OBS用于海底天然地震长期观测,在国内尚处于实验阶段.2015年在马尼拉俯冲带北段开展了为期6个月的宽频带海底天然地震观测试验.根据回收的1台海底地震仪(OBS04)与国际地震台网的718台陆地地震台站,共记录到7562个P波走时和5002个S波走时数据,利用Hyposat地震定位方法,对马尼拉俯冲带北部(119°E—123°E,19°N—22°N)在2015年8月至2016年2月期间的264个地震进行了重定位.地震重定位的结果及定位误差分析表明,在海域布设的OBS04台站让地震观测的空间分布更为合理,提高了地震定位精度;重定位后的震中分布更为集中,与地质构造吻合良好;浅部的地震活动较为活跃,分布密集,与浅部断层发育有关;重定位后的4条震源深度投影剖面,从不同角度较好地约束了俯冲板片上边界的板片形态,板片倾角在浅部0～30km区间约为10°～22°,随着深度的增加,俯冲板片逐渐变陡,在深度120～180km处倾角约为41°～58°.该项研究为马尼拉俯冲带北段的板片形态提供了重要约束,而且为今后长期天然地震观测提供了重要而宝贵的经验与借鉴.     

西秦岭与南北地震构造带交汇区深部电性结构特征

西秦岭造山带与南北地震构造带接触区是中国大陆最重要的南北向和东西向构造转化的接合部位之一.本文介绍了分别位于该区106°E东、西两侧的LMS-L3和DBS-L1两条大地电磁剖面的探测结果,两条剖面分别跨过了龙门山构造带东北段的青川段和宁强段.采用大地电磁相位张量分解技术对两条剖面上各测点的电性走向、二维偏离度等进行了计算和分析,采用NLCG二维反演方法对TE+TM模式的视电阻率和阻抗相位数据进行了二维联合反演.反演得到二维电性结构,在经度106°西侧LMS-L3剖面的深部电性结构自北向南揭示出,西秦岭北缘、成县盆地北缘、康县（即勉略构造带）和平武-青川断裂带都表现为明显的电性梯度带,深部延伸可达几十公里;西秦岭造山带、碧口地块与龙门山构造带东北段3个构造单元整体表现为高电阻体、呈现往南叠合且角度逐渐变陡的趋势.在106°E西侧西秦岭造山带区域的深部存在壳内低阻层,而东侧区域表现为高电阻体,深部电性结构在106°E东、西两侧的差异与该区深部速度结构特征一致,东、西两侧深部结构差异可能是该区中强地震分布差异的深层原因.LMS-L3和DBS-L1两条剖面南段的深部电性结构图像揭示出龙门山构造带东北部的青川段和宁强段内的平武-青川断裂带具有明显不同的深部结构特征,平武-青川断裂带在青川段为明显的电性梯度带,在宁强段不再表现为电性梯度带,而是完整的高电阻块体.汶川强余震向东北发展止于青川青木川附近,与平武-青川断裂带延伸深度和向北东方向的延伸长度密切相关,同时高电阻块体的宁强段对汶川强余震东北发展起到了阻挡作用.     

Inversion, error analysis, and validation of GPS/MET occultation data

The global positioning system meteorology (GPS/MET) experiment was the first practical demonstration of global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-based active limb sounding employing the radio occultation technique. This method measures, as principal observable and with millimetric accuracy, the excess phase path (relative to propagation in vacuum) of GNSS-transmitted radio waves caused by refraction during passage through the Earth’s neutral atmosphere and ionosphere in limb geometry. It shows great potential utility for weather and climate system studies in providing an unique combination of global coverage, high vertical resolution and accuracy, long-term stability, and all-weather capability. We first describe our GPS/MET data processing scheme from excess phases via bending angles to the neutral atmospheric parameters refractivity, density, pressure and temperature. Special emphasis is given to ionospheric correction methodology and the inversion of bending angles to refractivities, where we introduce a matrix inversion technique (instead of the usual integral inversion). The matrix technique is shown to lead to identical results as integral inversion but is more directly extendable to inversion by optimal estimation. The quality of GPS/MET-derived profiles is analyzed with an error estimation analysis employing a Monte Carlo technique. We consider statistical errors together with systematic errors due to upper-boundary initialization of the retrieval by a priori bending angles. Perfect initialization and properly smoothed statistical errors allow for better than 1 K temperature retrieval accuracy up to the stratopause. No initialization and statistical errors yield better than 1 K accuracy up to 30 km but less than 3 K accuracy above 40 km. Given imperfect initialization, biases ≫ 2 K propagate down to below 30 km height in unfavorable realistic cases. Furthermore, results of a statistical validation of GPS/MET profiles through comparison with atmospheric analyses of the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) are presented. The comparisons indicate the high utility of the occultation data in that very good agreement of upper troposphere/lower stratosphere temperature (better than 1.5 K rms, ≪ 0.5 K bias) is found for a region (Europe+USA) where the ECMWF analyses are known to be good, but poorer agreement for a region (Southern Pacific) where the analyses are known to be degraded.     

Influence of canopy density on snow distribution in a temperate mountain range

We analyse spatial variability and different evolution patterns of snowpack in a mixed beech–fir stand in the central Pyrenees. Snow depth and density were surveyed weekly along six transects of contrasting forest cover during a complete accumulation and melting season; we also surveyed a sector unaffected by canopy cover. Forest density was measured using the sky view factor (SVF) obtained from digital hemispherical photographs. During periods of snow accumulation and melting, noticeable differences in snow depth and density were found between the open site and those areas covered by forest canopy. Principal component analysis provided valuable information in explaining these observations. The results indicate a high variability in snow accumulation within forest areas related to differences in canopy density. Maximum snow water equivalent (SWE) was reduced by more than 50% beneath dense canopies compared with clearings, and this difference increased during the melting period. We also found significant temporal variations: when melting began in sectors with low SVF, most of the snow had already thawed in areas with high SVF. However, specific conditions occasionally produced a different response of SWE to forest cover, with lower melting rates observed beneath dense canopies. The high values of correlation coefficients for SWE and SVF (r > 0·9) indicate the reliability of predicting the spatial distribution of SWE in forests when only a moderate number of observations are available. Digital hemispherical photographs provide an appropriate tool for this type of analysis, especially for zenith angles in the range 35–55 . Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impact–entrainment relationship in a saltating cloud

The problem of impact–entrainment relationship is one of the central issues in understanding saltation, a primary aeolian transport mode. By using particle dynamic analyser measurement technology the movement of saltating particles at the very near‐surface level (1 mm above the bed) was detected. The impacting and entrained particles in the same impact–entrainment process were identified and the speeds, angle with respect to the horizontal, and energy of the impacting and entrained sand cloud were analysed. It was revealed that both the speed and angle of impacting and entrained particles vary widely. The probability distribution of the speed of impacting and entrained particles in the saltating cloud is best described by a Weibull distribution function. The mean impact speed is generally greater than the mean lift‐off speed except for the 0·1–0·2 mm sand whose entrainment is significantly influenced by air drag. Both the impact and lift‐off angles range from 0° to 180°. The mean lift‐off angles range from 39° to 94° while the mean impact angles range from 40° to 78°, much greater than those previously reported. The greater mean lift‐off and especially the mean impact angles are attributed to mid‐air collisions at the very low height, which are difficult to detect by conventional high‐speed photography and are generally ignored in the existing theoretical simulation models. The proportion of backward‐impacting particles also evidences the mid‐air collisions. The impact energy is generally greater than the entrainment energy except for the 0·1–0·2 mm sand. There exists a reasonably good correlation of the mean speed, angle and energy between the impacting and entrained cloud in the impact–entrainment process. The results presented in this paper deserve to be considered in modelling saltation. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

酸雨环境下砌体结构地震易损性研究

对4榀相同特性的砖墙进行不同程度的酸雨腐蚀试验及低周反复荷载试验,得出其在不同腐蚀循环次数下的滞回曲线。基于陆新征-曲哲恢复力模型对砖墙试件进行模拟分析,并与试验结果进行对比,验证得出三弹簧单元模型能够较准确预测砌体构件的滞回性能。利用三弹簧单元模型对不同腐蚀次数下砌体结构进行IDA分析,得出不同腐蚀次数下砌体结构的易损性曲线,通过对"小震"、"中震"、"大震"下结构失效概率的分析得出,酸雨腐蚀能够严重影响结构的力学性能,使得结构的抗震性能显著下降。     

New techniques for auroral irregularity studies with COSCAT

The COSCAT system enables the detection of E-region auroral backscatter with the EISCAT remote receivers at magnetic aspect angles close to 90°. This is achieved by utilising a low-power transmitter stationed in Oulu, Finland. Many important observations of E-region irregularities have been achieved with this simple experiment. Recent studies have attempted to push the COSCAT system to its experimental limits. Firstly, the CW signal has been phase-modulated with 13-bit Barker codes with baud lengths of 40, 70 and 100 s. Interpretation of the received power allows the spatial distribution of the auroral scatterers to be determined. The second advance is in the use of a sophisticated correlator program which allows data to be buffered within the correlator at very high time resolution. This enables the coherent backscatter power to be sampled every 12.5 ms and the full auto-correlation function to be measured every 100 ms. These measurements allow the COSCAT system to be employed for the first time in an investigation of the growth and decay of the auroral irregularities.     

Internal waves and temperature fronts on slopes

Time series measurements from an array of temperature miniloggers in a line at constant depth along the sloping boundary of a lake are used to describe the ‘internal surf zone” where internal waves interact with the sloping boundary. More small positive temperature time derivatives are recorded than negative, but there are more large negative values than positive, giving the overall distribution of temperature time derivatives a small negative skewness. This is consistent with the internal wave dynamics; fronts form during the up-slope phase of the motion, bringing cold water up the slope, and the return flow may become unstable, leading to small advecting billows and weak warm fronts. The data are analysed to detect ‘events’, periods in which the temperature derivatives exceed a set threshold. The speed and distance travelled by ‘events’ are described. The motion along the slope may be a consequence of (a) instabilities advected by the flow (b) internal waves propagating along-slope or (c) internal waves approaching the slope from oblique directions. The propagation of several of the observed ‘events’ can only be explained by (c), evidence that the internal surf zone has some, but possibly not all, the characteristics of the conventional ‘surface wave’ surf zone, with waves steepening as they approach the slope at oblique angles.     

基于波动方程的广义屏叠前深度偏移

地震波传播算子的计算效率和精度是制约三维叠前深度偏移的关键因素. 广义屏传播算子(GSP, Generalized Screen Propagator)是一种在双域中实现的广角单程波传播算子. 这一方法略去了在非均匀体之间发生的交混回响,但它可以正确处理包括聚焦、衍射、折射和干涉在内的各种多次前向散射现象. 通过背景速度下的相移和扰动速度下的陡倾角校正,广义屏算子能够适应地层速度的强烈横向变化. 这种算子可以直接应用于炮集叠前偏移,通过将广义屏算子作用于双平方根方程,还可以获得一种高效率、高精度的炮检距域叠前深度偏移方法,用于二维共炮检距道集和三维共方位角道集的深度域成像. 本文首先简述了炮检距域广义屏传播算子的理论,进而讨论了共照射角成像(CAI, Common Angle Imaging)条件,由此给出各个不同照射角(炮检距射线参数)下的成像结果,进而得到共照射角像集. 由于照射角和炮检距的对应关系,共照射角像集又为偏移速度分析和AVO(振幅随炮检距变化)分析等提供了有力工具.     

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE RELATION OF BED MORPHOLOGY WITH SURFACE FLOW IN MEANDER CHANNELS

1 INTRODUCTION The plane shape of a river channel is very important for river improvement planning, because it must allow floodwater to flow off safely. Natural rivers wind from side to side, which creates meandering forms. From the history of river impro…     

Quantitative estimate of VTI parameters from AVA responses

The influence of the vertical transverse isotropy (VTI) on amplitude versus angle (AVA) responses is first studied on the linearized formula of the PP-reflection coefficient. Up to medium angles of incidence, as in the isotropic case, only two quantities can be retrieved, the second with less accuracy than the first. These quantities are the P-impedance and the S-impedance multiplied by 1− δ/2, where δ is one of the two anisotropic parameters introduced by Thomsen. To extend these results to the exact formulae, the AVA analysis is then formulated as an inverse problem and a least-squares cost function is defined. A study of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Hessian of the least-squares cost function confirms these results. Though these results are dependent on the amount of data and on the maximum angle of incidence available, they are appropriate for small and medium angles of incidence. Thanks to this inverse formulation, this work can be extended to the case of multicomponent AVA responses. The addition of PS-reflection data further constrains the problem, but the S-impedance and δ are still coupled. However, the addition of SS-reflection data gives an estimation of both P- and S-impedances and δ. The last two parameters, the density and the second anisotropic parameter ɛ, remain difficult to determine, at least with small-to-medium angular apertures.     

Secondary flow deflection in the lee of transverse dunes with implications for dune morphodynamics and migration

Measurements of lee‐side airflow response from an extensive array of meteorological instruments combined with smoke and flow streamer visualization is used to examine the development and morphodynamic significance of the lee‐side separation vortex over closely spaced transverse dune ridges. A differential deflection mechanism is presented that explains the three‐dimensional pattern of lee‐side airflow structure for a variety of incident flow angles. These flow patterns produce reversed, along‐dune, and deflected surface flow vectors in the lee that are inferred to result in net ‘lateral diversion’ of sand transport over one dune wavelength for incident angles as small as 10° from crest‐transverse (i.e. 80° from the crest line). This lateral displacement increases markedly with incident flow angle when expressed as the absolute value of the total deflection in degrees. Reversed and multi‐directional flow occurs for incident angles between 90° and 50°. These results document the three‐dimensional nature of flow and sand transport over transverse dunes and provide empirical evidence for an oblique migration model. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On auroral dynamics observed by HF radar: 1. Equatorward edge of the afternoon-evening diffuse luminosity belt

Observations and modelling are presented which illustrate the ability of the Finland CUTLASS HF radar to monitor the afternoon-evening equatorward auroral boundary during weak geomagnetic activity. The subsequent substorm growth phase development was also observed in the late evening sector as a natural continuation of the preceding auroral oval dynamics. Over an 8 h period the CUTLASS Finland radar observed a narrow (in range) and persistent region of auroral F- and (later) E-layer echoes which gradually moved equatorward, consistent with the auroral oval diurnal rotation. This echo region corresponds to the subvisual equatorward edge of the diffuse luminosity belt (SEEL) and the ionospheric footprint of the inner boundary of the electron plasma sheet. The capability of the Finland CUTLASS radar to monitor the E-layer SEEL-echoes is a consequence of the nearly zero E-layer rectilinear aspect angles in a region 5/10° poleward of the radar site. The F-layer echoes are probably the boundary blob echoes. The UHF EISCAT radar was in operation and observed a similar subvisual auroral arc and an F-layer electron density enhancement when it appeared in its antenna beam.     

Validation of GOME total ozone by means of the Norwegian ozone monitoring network

The Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME) onboard the ERS-2 satellite has been in operation since July 1995. The Norwegian ground-based total ozone network has played an important role both in the main validation during the commissioning phase and in the validation of upgraded versions of the analysis algorithms of the instrument. The ground-based network consists of various spectrometer types (Dobson, Brewer, UV filter instruments). The validation of the second algorithm version used until January 1998 reveals a very good agreement between GOME and ground-based data at solar zenith angles <60° and deviations of GOME total ozone data from ground-based data of up to ±60 DU (∼20%) at zenith angles ≥60°. The deviations strongly depend on the season of the year, being negative in summer and positive in winter/spring, The deviations furthermore show a considerable scattering (up to ±25 DU in monthly average values of 5° SZA intervals), even in close spatial and temporal coincidence with ground-based measurements, especially in the high Arctic. The deviations are also dependent on the viewing geometry/ground pixel size with an additional negative offset for the large pixels used in the backswath mode and at solar zenith angles ≥85°, compared to forward-swath pixels.     

Large scale climate and rainfall seasonality in a Mediterranean Area: Insights from a non‐homogeneous Markov model applied to the Agro‐Pontino plain

In the context of climate change and variability, there is considerable interest in how large scale climate indicators influence regional precipitation occurrence and its seasonality. Seasonal and longer climate projections from coupled ocean–atmosphere models need to be downscaled to regional levels for hydrologic applications, and the identification of appropriate state variables from such models that can best inform this process is also of direct interest. Here, a Non‐Homogeneous Hidden Markov Model (NHMM) for downscaling daily rainfall is developed for the Agro‐Pontino Plain, a coastal reclamation region very vulnerable to changes of hydrological cycle. The NHMM, through a set of atmospheric predictors, provides the link between large scale meteorological features and local rainfall patterns. Atmospheric data from the NCEP/NCAR archive and 56‐years record (1951–2004) of daily rainfall measurements from 7 stations in Agro‐Pontino Plain are analyzed. A number of validation tests are carried out, in order to: 1) identify the best set of atmospheric predictors to model local rainfall; 2) evaluate the model performance to capture realistically relevant rainfall attributes as the inter‐annual and seasonal variability, as well as average and extreme rainfall patterns. Validation tests show that the best set of atmospheric predictors are the following: mean sea level pressure, temperature at 1000 hPa, meridional and zonal wind at 850 hPa and precipitable water, from 20°N to 80°N of latitude and from 80°W to 60°E of longitude. Furthermore, the validation tests show that the rainfall attributes are simulated realistically and accurately. The capability of the NHMM to be used as a forecasting tool to quantify changes of rainfall patterns forced by alteration of atmospheric circulation under climate change and variability scenarios is discussed.     

Reconfiguration and closure of lobe flux by reconnection during northward IMF: possible evidence for signatures in cusp/cleft auroral emissions

Observations are presented of the response of the dayside cusp/cleft aurora to changes in both the clock and elevation angles of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) vector, as monitored by the WIND spacecraft. The auroral observations are made in 630 nm light at the winter solstice near magnetic noon, using an all-sky camera and a meridian-scanning photometer on the island of Spitsbergen. The dominant change was the response to a northward turning of the IMF which caused a poleward retreat of the dayside aurora. A second, higher-latitude band of aurora was seen to form following the northward turning, which is interpreted as the effect of lobe reconnection which reconfigures open flux. We suggest that this was made possible in the winter hemisphere, despite the effect of the Earth’s dipole tilt, by a relatively large negative X component of the IMF. A series of five events then formed in the poleward band and these propagated in a southwestward direction and faded at the equatorward edge of the lower-latitude band as it migrated poleward. It is shown that the auroral observations are consistent with overdraped lobe flux being generated by lobe reconnection in the winter hemisphere and subsequently being re-closed by lobe reconnection in the summer hemisphere. We propose that the balance between the reconnection rates at these two sites is modulated by the IMF elevation angle, such that when the IMF points more directly northward, the summer lobe reconnection site dominates, re-closing all overdraped lobe flux and eventually becoming disconnected from the Northern Hemisphere.     

Limitations imposed by nonlinear phenomena on computation of acoustic paths

Approaches for estimating the influence of nonlinear effects on long-distance propagation of acoustic signals in an isothermal atmosphere are developed. It has been indicated that nonlinear effects can be ignored on paths up to 3000 km at beam angles smaller than 35° (nonlinear absorption). However, the spectrum will be pronouncedly distorted at these distances due to the generation of new harmonics (for initial Mach numbers about 10⁻⁴).     

Turbulence fields in the lee of two‐dimensional transverse dunes simulated in a wind tunnel

The turbulence field of airflow in the lee of a dune has significant impacts on dune dynamics and related processes. We used particle image velocimetry in a wind tunnel simulation to obtain detailed velocity measurements in the lee of two‐dimensional transverse dune models, then used the results to analyse their turbulence fields. The dune models used in this study had a single lee angle of 30°, and a total of six stoss angles: 3°, 5°, 10°, 15°, 20° and 25°. We used vorticity, turbulence intensity, Reynolds stress and turbulent kinetic energy to characterize the turbulence fields. These parameters were functions of stoss angle, wind velocity, distance from the dune crest and height above the ground surface. The stoss angles could generally be divided into two groups based on the profiles of mean velocity, turbulence and Reynolds stress. Stoss angles of 3° and 5° usually had similar profiles, and angles of 15°, 20° and 25° formed a second group with similar profiles. The profiles for the stoss angle of 10° were usually transitional and were intermediate between the two groups. Vorticity, Reynolds stress and turbulent kinetic energy increased monotonically with increasing free‐stream wind velocity, but their variations with respect to the stoss angle were complex. The stoss angles of 15° and 20° had the maximum values of these three parameters, thus these angles may have special significance in dune development given the characteristics of the mean velocity fields and turbulence fields they produce within the lee airflow. It is the streamwise velocity component and its turbulence that determine the surface shear stress. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.