不同强度El Ni?o的衰减过程.Ⅱ,中等和较弱El Ni?o的衰减过程

在第二部分,我们研究了中等和较弱El Ni?o的衰减过程. 结果表明,对中等El Ni?o而言,在其发展阶段和盛期,负异常信号在西太平洋产生,但由于强度不足,在El Ni?o盛期之后迅速衰减,这是一种夭折的类西太平洋振子过程. 因此,与强El Ni?o不同,中等El Ni?o衰减进入平常态. 而较弱El Ni?o以截然不同的另一种方式进行位相转换,伴随东南太平洋副高的加强和西移,东风异常和海表温度负异常自赤道东太平洋向西扩展,这是一种平流模态过程,导致较弱El Ni?o衰减进入La Nia.     

El Niño influence on streamflow forecasting

Stochastic models are often fitted to historical data in order to produce streamflow scenarios. These scenarios are used as input data for simulation/optimization models that support operational decisions for water resource systems. The streamflow scenarios are sampled from probability distributions conditioned on the available information, such as recent streamflow data. In this paper we introduce a procedure for further conditioning the probability distributions by considering the recent measurements of climatic variables, such as sea temperatures, that are used to describe the occurrence of El Ni?o. We adopt an auto-regressive model and use the “El Ni?o information” to refine the parameter estimation process for each time step. The corresponding methodology is tested for the monthly energy time series, “inflowing” to the power plants of Colombia. This is a linear combination of streamflow values for the 18 most important rivers of the country.     

不同分布型El Ni?o期间MJO活动的差异

利用Hadley中心的月平均海温资料、NCEP/NCAR和ERA-Interim逐日再分析大气环流数据等,详细对比了赤道大气季节内振荡(MJO)活动在东部型El Ni?o与中部型El Ni?o发展期间的异同点.结果表明,与传统的东部型El Ni?o发展前MJO明显偏强的特征相似,在中部型El Ni?o迅速发展前的春夏季,MJO动能亦较强且持续东传特征显著.这说明无论是东部型El Ni?o还是中部型El Ni?o,与MJO能量的突然增长相联系的低频纬向西风和低频对流活动的增强及其持续东传是激发El Ni?o的重要因素.但是,在中部型El Ni?o发展成熟的冬季至次年春季,热带中西太平洋MJO动能的强度突然再次增强,所占大气总扰动动能的比重也再次增大,热带MJO动能的逐日演变达到第二次峰值,且较第一次峰值更强;MJO从热带印度洋向赤道中东太平洋持续东传的特征也更为显著.这与在传统东部型El Ni?o盛期MJO能量和东传都明显减弱的特征表现出显著的差异.进一步分析指出,中部型El Ni?o成熟期海温正距平中心位置的西移以及由中部型El Ni?o激发的范围偏小、位置偏西的菲律宾附近异常反气旋环流可能是导致中部型El Ni?o盛期MJO活动显著增强的主要原因.     

中国华北雾霾天气与超强El Ni?o事件的相关性研究

2015年11—12月,全国接连发生七次大范围、持续性雾霾天气过程,其中,11月27日—12月1日的雾霾天气过程持续时间长达五天,成为2015年最强的一次重污染天气过程;12月19-25日重度雾霾再次发展,影响面积一度达到35.2万km~2.本文利用多种数据资料通过个例对比和历史统计详细分析了超强El Ni?o背景下雾霾天气频发的天气气候条件.其结果清楚表明:2015年11—12月欧亚中高纬度以纬向环流为主,东亚冬季风偏弱,使得影响我国的冷空气活动偏少,我国中东部大部地区对流层低层盛行异常偏南风,大气相对湿度明显偏大,并且大气层结稳定,对流层底层存在明显逆温.上述大气环流条件使得污染物的水平和垂直扩散条件差,因此在有一定污染排放的情况下,造成了重度雾霾天气过程的频发.由此,超强El Ni?o事件所导致的大尺度大气环流异常是我国中东部,尤其华北地区冬季雾霾天气频发的重要原因之一.     

Tracking Earth’s Energy: From El Ni?o to Global Warming

The state of knowledge and outstanding issues with respect to the global mean energy budget of planet Earth are described, along with the ability to track changes over time. Best estimates of the main energy components involved in radiative transfer and energy flows through the climate system do not satisfy physical constraints for conservation of energy without adjustments. The main issues relate to the downwelling longwave (LW) radiation and the hydrological cycle, and thus the surface evaporative cooling. It is argued that the discrepancy is 18% of the surface latent energy flux, but only 4% of the downwelling LW flux and, for various reasons, it is most likely that the latter is astray in some calculations, including many models, although there is also scope for precipitation estimates to be revised. Beginning in 2000, the top-of-atmosphere radiation measurements provide stable estimates of the net global radiative imbalance changes over a decade, but after 2004 there is “missing energy” as the observing system of the changes in ocean heat content, melting of land ice, and so on is unable to account for where it has gone. Based upon a number of climate model experiments for the twenty-first century where there are stases in global surface temperature and upper ocean heat content in spite of an identifiable global energy imbalance, we infer that the main sink of the missing energy is likely the deep ocean below 275?m depth.     

Genesis of the 2014–2016 El Nio events

The 2015/2016 El Nio was one of the strongest El Nio events in history, and this strong event was preceded by a weak El Nio in 2014. This study systematically analyzed the dynamical processes responsible for the genesis of these events. It was found that the weak 2014 El Nio had two warming phases, the spring-summer warming was produced by zonal advection and downwelling Kelvin waves driven by westerly wind bursts(WWBs), and the autumn-winter warming was produced by meridional advection, surface heating as well as downwelling Kelvin waves. The 2015/2016 extreme El Nio, on the other hand, was primarily a result of sustained zonal advection and downwelling Kelvin waves driven by a series of WWBs, with enhancement from the Bjerknes positive feedback. The vast difference between these two El Nio events mainly came from the different amount of WWBs in 2014 and 2015. As compared to the 1982/1983 and 1997/1998 extreme El Nio events, the 2015/2016 El Nio exhibited some distinctive characteristics in its genesis and spatial pattern. We need to include the effects of WWBs to the theoretical framework of El Nio to explain these characteristics, and to improve our understanding and prediction of El Nio.     

不同强度El Ni(n)o的衰减过程.Ⅱ,中等和较弱El Ni(n)o的衰减过程

在第二部分,我们研究了中等和较弱El Ni(n)o的衰减过程. 结果表明,对中等El Ni(n)o而言,在其发展阶段和盛期,负异常信号在西太平洋产生,但由于强度不足,在El Ni(n)o盛期之后迅速衰减,这是一种夭折的类西太平洋振子过程. 因此,与强El Ni(n)o不同,中等El Ni(n)o衰减进入平常态. 而较弱El Ni(n)o以截然不同的另一种方式进行位相转换,伴随东南太平洋副高的加强和西移,东风异常和海表温度负异常自赤道东太平洋向西扩展,这是一种平流模态过程,导致较弱El Ni(n)o衰减进入La Ni(n)a.     

The unusual 2014–2016 El Ni?o events: Dynamics,prediction and enlightenments

The 2014–2016 El Ni?o events consist of a stalled El Ni?o event in the winter of 2014/2015 and a following extreme El Ni?o event in the end of 2015. Neither event was successfully predicted in operational prediction models. Because of the unusual evolutions of these events that rarely happened in the historical observations, few experience was ready for understanding and predicting the two El Ni?o events when they occurred. Also due to their specialties, considerable attention were attracted with aims to reveal the hidden mechanisms. This article reviews the recent progresses and knowledge that were obtained in these studies. Emerging from these studies, it was argued that the key factor that was responsible for the stalled El Ni?o in 2014 was the unexpected summertime Easterly Wind Surges(EWSs) or the lack of summertime Westerly Wind Bursts(WWBs). Most operational prediction models failed to reproduce such stochastic winds and thus made unrealistic forecasts. The two El Ni?o events awakened the research community again to incorporate the state-of-the-art climate models to simulate the stochastic winds and investigate their roles in the development of El Ni?o.     

地球自转与El Nio——海气耦合理论

从低纬的海气耦合的浅水模式方程组出发 ,运用正交模和特殊函数的方法进一步讨论地球自转速率变化对海气耦合系统的影响 .研究表明 :地球自转速率的变化通过海气耦合一方面使大气和海洋的Kelvin波和Rossby波的移动及稳定性发生变化 ,另一方面使纬向风、洋流和海表温度发生变化 .特别是在地球自转减慢时 ,通过海气耦合 ,出现纬向风和洋流异常和大洋东部海表温度增加 ,从而导致引起全球气候异常的ElNi no现象     

Sea surface salinity-derived indexes for distinguishing two types of El Ni?o events in the tropical Pacific

In this study, sea surface salinity(SSS) indexes are derived from reanalysis and observational datasets to distinguish the two types of(Central Pacific(CP) and Eastern Pacific(EP)) El Ni?o events in the tropical Pacific. Based on the SSS anomalous spatial and temporal pointwise correlations with sea surface temperature(SST) indexes of two types of El Ni?o events, the key areas with SSS variations for EP and CP El Ni?o events are identified. For EP El Ni?o events, the key areas are located over an arcuate area centered at(0°, 130°E) and in the central equatorial Pacific covering(5°S–5°N, 175°W–158°W). For CP El Ni?o events, the key areas are located in the northeastern western Pacific covering(2°N, 142°E–170°E) and in the southeastern Pacific covering(20°S–10°S, 135°W–95°W). The key areas for EP and CP El Ni?o events in this study are not located near the dateline in the equatorial Pacific and differ from those obtained from the regression or composite methods.Accordingly, these key areas are used to construct SSS indexes, termed as the CP/EP El Ni?o SSS index(CSI/ESI), to distinguish EP and CP El Ni?o events independently. The SSS indexes are verified by different datasets over varying time periods and they can be adequately used to identify the two types of El Ni?o events and serve as another useful tool for monitoring ENSO. These analyses offer novel insight into how to represent the diversity of El Ni?o events.     

Is There Any Teleconnection Between Surface Hydrology in Poland and El Niño/Southern Oscillation?

The objective of the work discussed in this paper was to seek possible links between surface hydrology in Southwestern (SW) Poland and El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Although the impact of ENSO on hydrology in Europe has been investigated by many researchers, no clear picture demonstrating spatial variability of such a teleconnection has yet been unequivocally reported. In particular, there is no comprehensive study on ENSO–streamflow links for Polish rivers. Herein, discharge time series from 15 sites located at lowland and mountain rivers in SW Poland and different ENSO indices are examined. They include atmospheric time series (axial component of atmospheric angular momentum, Southern Oscillation Index), oceanic indices (Niño 3.4 Index, Global SST Index), geodetic data (length-of-day), and the combined index (Multivariate ENSO Index). The data span the period from November 1971 to October 2006. On the basis of cross-correlation and wavelet analyses it was found that there is a weak but significant link between ENSO and surface hydrology in SW Poland. It is inferred that ENSO episodes may be among a few factors affecting winter and early spring discharges of rivers in SW Poland and may have a (probably limited) impact on snow-melt flood generation.     

Evolution of the 2015/16 El Nio and historical perspective since 1979

The 2015/16 El Nio developed from weak warm conditions in late 2014 and NINO3.4 reached 3℃ in November 2015. We describe the characteristics of the evolution of the 2015/16 El Nio using various data sets including SST, surface winds,outgoing longwave radiation and subsurface temperature from an ensemble operational ocean reanalyses, and place this event in the context of historical ENSO events since 1979. One salient feature about the 2015/16 El Nio was a large number of westerly wind bursts and downwelling oceanic Kelvin waves(DWKVs). Four DWKVs were observed in April-November 2015 that initiated and enhanced the eastern-central Pacific warming. Eastward zonal current anomalies associated with DWKVs advected the warm pool water eastward in spring/summer. An upwelling Kelvin wave(UWKV) emerged in early November 2015 leading to a rapid decline of the event. Another outstanding feature was that NINO4 reached a historical high(1.7℃), which was 1℃(0.8℃) higher than that of the 1982/83(1997/98) El Nio . Although NINO3 was comparable to that of the 1982/83 and 1997/98 El Nio , NINO1+2 was much weaker. Consistently, enhanced convection was displaced 20 degree westward, and the maximum D20 anomaly was about 1/3.1/2 of that in 1997 and 1982 near the west coast of South America.     

Enlightenments from researches and predictions of 2014–2016 super El Nio event

<正>El Nio is a remarkable climate phenomenon with a basinwide warming of sea surface temperatures(SST) in the easterncentral tropical Pacific. El Nio means The Little Boy, or Christ Child in Spanish, and on the contrary, a basinwide cooling of the tropical Pacific SST is called La Nia that means The Little Girl in Spanish. Always, a large-scale SST change in the tropical     

Some characteristics and precipitation effects of the El Niño of 1997–1998

The 1997–1998 El Niño was the strongest in known history. However, its effects on rainfall in different parts of the globe were not all as expected (floods were expected in some regions and droughts in others). The characteristics of this El Niño, and the expected and observed precipitation effects are described; the reasons for the expectations not coming true in some regions are discussed. This paper attempts to review the important scientific issues involved in El Niño phenomena for the general reader.     

Regional differences in the effects of El Niño and La Niña on low flows and floods

Abstract

The response of monthly 7-day low flow, monthly instantaneous peak flow, and monthly frequency of flood events to El Niño and La Niña episodes is investigated for 18 rivers that represent a diverse range of climatic types throughout New Zealand. A significant positive or negative deviation from the long-term average was observed in over half the possible combinations of river, streamflow index, and type of ENSO episode; significant deviations were most frequent in the case of low flow, especially during La Niña episodes. Patterns of streamflow response differ widely between rivers, and the response of a given river to individual ENSO episodes is very variable. The patterns of streamflow response to ENSO are consistent to some extent with the climatic effects of ENSO already identified by meteorologists. Two core regions can be defined in which streamflow tends to respond in the same way. These are in the northeast of the North Island, and in the axial ranges of the South Island, where there are significant effects of ENSO on the frequency and duration of rain-bearing northeasterly and westerly winds respectively. The patterns of response strongly reflect topography, and the exposure of catchments to predominant air masses.     

Contrasting the evolution between two types of El Niño in a data assimilation model

Simulation outputs were used to contrast the distinct evolution patterns between two types of El Niño. The modeled isotherm depth anomalies closely matched satellite sea surface height anomalies. Results for the El Niño Modoki (central Pacific El Niño) corresponded well with previous studies which suggested that thermocline variations in the equatorial Pacific contain an east–west oscillation. The eastern Pacific El Niño experienced an additional north–south seesaw oscillation between approximately 15° N and 15° S. The wind stress curl pattern over the west-central Pacific was responsible for the unusual manifestation of the eastern Pacific El Niño. The reason why the 1982/1983 El Niño was followed by a normal state whereas a La Niña phase developed from the 1997/1998 El Niño is also discussed. In 1997/1998, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) retreated faster and easterly trade winds appeared immediately after the mature El Niño, cooling the sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific and generating the La Niña event. The slow retreat of the ITCZ in 1982/1983 terminated the warm event at a much slower rate and ultimately resulted in a normal phase.     

1997/1998 El Ni(n)o期间中国南部闪电活动的异常特征

基于近8年卫星观测的全球闪电资料,对中国东南部和中南半岛各季节闪电密度距平场进行EOF分析发现,在这一El Nino事件期间,与NINO3区海表温度正距平升高的同时,1997年春季该地区的闪电活动就出现了显著的正异常,并一直持续到次年春季结束,各季度的正异常区闪电密度距平百分率依次是89%,30%,45%,498%和55%,其中冬季变化幅度最大;正异常区在冬、春季位于中国南部及其沿海地区,而在夏、秋季位于中南半岛南部及泰国湾.与正常年份相比,各季闪电密度正距平中心位置显著偏西,特别是冬、春季同时偏北.另外,中国南部地区的闪电密度和对流性降水量及高CAPE日数三项距平百分比的年际变化分析表明,正异常区和黑潮主干区这三项的距平百分比之间两两相关;在三项中,闪电密度的相对变化率最大,闪电活动对ElNino事件的响应最灵敏.但是,黑潮主干海域、青藏高原和西北、华北-东北等地区的闪电活动对El Nino事件的响应情况更为复杂和多样化.     

The Relationship Between the Interannual Variation of Earth’s Rotation and El Niño Events

We analyzed the relationship between the earth’s rotational variation and sea-surface temperature anomaly. By means of using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) bandpass filter on the change of length-of-day (ΔLOD) data, the interannual variation series having time periods greater than 1.5-year and less than 8-year was obtained. Time series analyses of the interannual variation, which corresponds to the El Niño period, reveal a close linkage between the earth’s rotation and El Niño. A detailed comparison suggests, that six of seven El Niño events are nearly synchronous with the interannual variation of the earth’s rotation, and all ΔLOD peak are in El Niño years except 1991–92, which means the interannual variation of the earth’s rotation in these years is relatively slow. The correlation between ΔLOD and sea-surface temperature is about 0.517 (1 month-lag), which far exceeds the 99% significance level.     

Seasonal compensation implied no weakening of the land carbon sink in the Northern Hemisphere under the 2015/2016 El Ni?o

The recurrent extreme El Ni?o events are commonly linked to reduced vegetation growth and the land carbon sink over many but discrete regions of the Northern Hemisphere(NH). However, we reported here a pervasive and continuous vegetation greening and no weakened land carbon sink in the maturation phase of the 2015/2016 El Ni?o event over the NH(mainly in the extra-tropics), based on multiple evidences from remote sensing observations, global ecosystem model simulations and atmospheric CO₂