Measurements of solar radiation and estimation of optical depth in the high Andes of Peru

Summary During an expedition to the high Andes of Southern Peru in June–July 1977, measurements of direct solar radiation in four spectral bands (0.270–0.530–0.630–0.695–2.900 ) were conducted at six sites in elevations ranging from sea level to 5645 m. These measurements were evaluated in Langley plots to determine total optical depths () and irradiances at the top of the atmosphere. In addition, water vapor optical depths (_wv) were calculated from the mean radiosounding over Lima during the expedition, and Rayleigh (_ray) and ozone (_oz) optical depths were obtained from published tabulations. Subtracting _ray, _oz, and _wv from yielded estimates of aerosol optical depth _aer. The components _ray and _oz decrease from the shorter towards the longer wavelength bands and from the lower towards the higher elevation sites; _aer also decreases towards the higher elevations. Particularly pronounced is the decrease of _aer and from the lowlands of the Pacific coast to the highlands of the interior, reflecting the effect of a persistent lower-tropospheric inversion and the contrast from the marine boundary layer to the clear atmosphere of the high Andes.With 4 Figures     

Properties of spatial temperature derivatives in the atmospheric surface layer

A pair of parallel cold wires separated in either the vertical or lateral direction was used to obtain the three components _x, _y, _z of the temperature derivative in the streamwise, lateral and vertical directions, respectively. The average absolute skewness values of _x and _z are nonzero and approximately equal, while the skewness of _y is approximately zero. These results appear to be consistent with the presence of a large, three-dimensional organised structure in the surface layer. There is an apparent low-frequency contamination in the spectral density of _y and _z due mainly to small errors in estimating the sensitivity of the cold wires. The temperature derivatives were high-pass filtered, the filter being set to remove possible contributions from the large structure and to minimise low-frequency sensitivity contamination. The filtered rms ratios \~_x/\~_y and \~_x/\~_z were in the range 0.7 to 0.9, a result in qualitative agreement with that obtained in the laboratory boundary layer by Sreenivasan et al. (1977). The skewness of filtered _x or _z is negligible, consistent with local isotropy of small-scale temperature fluctuations and in support of the high wavenumber spectral isotropy discussed in Antonia and Chambers (1978).     

Effects of heat and water vapor transport on eddy covariance measurement of CO2 fluxes

Flux densities of carbon dioxide were measured over an arid, vegetation-free surface by eddy covariance techniques and by a heat budget-profile method, in which CO₂ concentration gradients were specified in terms of mixing ratios. This method showed negligible fluxes of CO₂, consistent with the bareness of the experimental site, whereas the eddy covariance measurements indicated large downward fluxes of CO₂. These apparently conflicting observations are in quantitative agreement with the results of a recent theory which predicts that whenever there are vertical fluxes of sensible or latent heat, a mean vertical velocity is developed. This velocity causes a mean vertical convective mass flux (= _cw for CO₂, in standard notation). The eddy covariance technique neglects this mean convective flux and measures only the turbulent flux _c w. Thus, when the net flux of CO₂ is zero, the eddy covariance method indicates an apparent flux which is equal and opposite to the mean convective flux, i.e., _c w = – _c w. Corrections for the mean convective flux are particularly significant for CO₂ because _cw and _c w are often of similar magnitude. The correct measurement of the net CO₂ flux by eddy covariance techniques requires that the fluxes of sensible and latent heat be measured as well.     

Three-dimensional modeling of synthetic cold fronts interacting with northern Alpine foehn

Summary The effect of the Alpine orography on prototype cold fronts approaching from the west is investigated by three-dimensional numerical model simulations. The numerical experiments cover a range of parameter constellations which govern the prefrontal environment of the front. Especially, the appearance and intensity of prefrontal northern Alpine foehn varies from case to case.The behaviour of a cold front north of the Alps depends much on the prefrontal condition it encounters. It is found that prefrontal foehn can either accelerate or retard the approaching front.An important feature is the pressure depression along the northern Alpine rim that results from the southerly foehn flow. In cases where this depression compensates the eastward directed pressure gradient associated with the largescale flow, the front tends to accelerate and the foehn breaks down as soon as the front passes. In contrast, the foehn prevents the front from a rapid eastward propagation if it is connected with a strong southerly wind component.No-foehn experiments are performed for comparison, where either the mountains are removed, or the static stability is set to neutral. Also shown are effects of different crossfrontal temperature contrasts.List of Symbols c _F propagation speed of a front - x, y horizontal grid spacing (cartesian system) - , horizontal grid spacing (geographic system) - t time step - z vertical grid spacing (cartesian system) - cross-frontal potential temperature difference - _i potential temperature step at an inversion - E turbulent kinetic energy - f Coriolis parameter - FGP frontogenesis parameter (see section 2.2) - g gravity acceleration (g=9.81 m s^–2) - vertical gradient of potential temperature - h terrain elevation (above MSL) - h _i height of an inversion (h _i =1000 m MSL) - H height of model lid (H=9000 m MSL) - K _M exchange coefficient of momentum - K _H exchange coefficient of heat and moisture - longitude - N Brunt-Väisäla-frequency - p pressure - Exner function (=T/) - latitude - q _v specific humidity - R _d gas constant of dry air (R _d =287.06 J kg^–1 K^–1) - density of dry air - t time - T temperature - potential temperature - TFP thermal front parameter (see section 2.2) - u, v, w cartesian wind components - u _g ,v _g geostrophic wind components - horizontal wind vector - x, y, z cartesian coordinates Abbreviations GND (above) ground level - MSL (above) mean sea level - UTC universal time coordinated With 20 Figures     

Estimation of the Monin-Obukhov similarity functions from a spectral model

From measured one-dimensional spectra of velocity and temperature variance, the universal functions of the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory are calculated for the range –2 z/L + 2. The calculations show good agreement with observations with the exception of a range –1 z/L 0 in which the function _m , i.e., the nondimensional mean shear, is overestimated. This overestimation is shown to be caused by neglecting the spectral divergence of a vertical transport of turbulent kinetic energy. The integral of the spectral divergence over the entire wave number space is suggested to be negligibly small in comparison with production and dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy.Notation a,b,c contants (see Equations (–4)) - C_i constants i=u, v, w, (see Equation (5) - k_me,k_mT peak wave numbers of 3-d moel spectra of turbulent kinetic energy and of temperature variance, respectively - k_mi peak wave numbers of 1-d spectra of velocity components i=u, v, w and of temperature fluctuations i= - k_sb, k_c characteristics wave numbers of energy-feeding by mechanical effects being modified by mean buoyancy, and of convective energy feeding, respectively - L Monin-Obukhov length - % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXafv3ySLgzGmvETj2BSbqefm0B1jxALjhiov2D% aebbfv3ySLgzGueE0jxyaibaiiYdd9qrFfea0dXdf9vqai-hEir8Ve% ea0de9qq-hbrpepeea0db9q8as0-LqLs-Jirpepeea0-as0Fb9pgea% 0lrP0xe9Fve9Fve9qapdbaqaaeGacaGaaiaabeqaamaabaabcaGcba% Gabeivayaaraaaaa!3C5B!\[{\rm{\bar T}}\] difference of mean temperature and mean potential temperature - T* Monin-Obukhov temperature scale - velocity of mean flow in positive x-direction - u* friction velocity - u, v, w components of velocity fluctuations - z height above ground - von Kármanán constant - temperature fluctuation - _m nondimensional mean shear - _H nondimensional mean temperature gradient - nondimensional rate of lolecular dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy - _D nondimensional divergence of vertical transports of turbulent linetic energy     

Reactions of alkoxy radicals under atmospheric conditions: The relative importance of decomposition versus reaction with O2

The reactions of alkoxy radicals determine to a large extent the products formed during the atmospheric degradations of emitted organic compounds. Experimental data concerning the decompositions, 1,5-H shift isomerizations and reactions with O₂ of several classes of alkoxy radicals are inconsistent with literature estimations of their absolute or relative rate constants. An alternative, although empirical, method for assessing the relative importance under atmospheric conditions of the reactions of alkoxy radicals with O₂ versus decomposition was derived. This estimation method utilizes the differences in the heats of reaction, (H)=(H_{decomposition}–H_{O 2 reaction}), between these two reactions pathways. For (H)[22–0.5(H_{O 2 reaction})], alkoxy radical decomposition dominates over the reaction with O₂ at room temperature and atmospheric pressure of air, while for (H)[25-0.5(H_{O 2 reaction})], the O₂ reaction dominates over decomposition (where the units of H are in kcal mol^–1). The utility and shortcomings of this approach are discussed. It is concluded that further studies concerning the reactions of alkoxy radicals are needed.     

Transport-Dissipation Analytical Solutions to the E-∈Turbulence Model and their Role in Predictions of the Neutral ABL

E- turbulence model predictions of the neutralatmospheric boundary layer (NABL) are reinvestigated to determine thecause for turbulence overpredictions found in previous applications. Analytical solutions to the coupled E and equations for the case of steady balance between transport and dissipation terms, the dominant balance just below the NABL top, are derived. It is found that analytical turbulence profiles laminarizeat a finite height only for values of closure parameter ratio c ₂ /_e equal toor slightly greater than one, with laminarization as z for greater . The point = 2 is additionally foundthat where analytical turbulent length scale (l) profilesmade a transition from ones ofdecreasing ( < 2) to increasing ( > 2)values with height. Numerically predicted profiles near the NABL topare consistent with analytical findings. The height-increasingvalues of l predicted throughout the NABL with standard values ofclosure parameters thus appear a consequence of 2.5(> 2), implied by these values (c ₂ = 1.92, _{= 1.3}, _{e = 1}). Comparison of numericalpredictions with DNS data shows that turbulence overpredictions obtained with standard-valued parameters are rectifiedby resetting and _e to 1.1 and 1.6, respectively, giving, with c ₂ = 1.92, 1.3, and laminarization of the NABL's cappingtransport-dissipation region at a finite height.     

The atmospheric tide as a continuous spectrum: Lunar semidiurnal tide in surface pressure

Summary The standard equations for the theory of atmospheric tides are solved here by an integral representation on the continuous spectrum of free oscillations. The model profile of back-ground temperature is that of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere in the lower and middle atmosphere, and in the lower thermosphere, above which an isothermal top extends to arbitrarily great heights. The top is warm enough to bring both the Lamb and the Pekeris modes into the continuous spectrum.Computations are made for semidiurnal lunar tidal pressure at sea level at the equator, and the contributions are partitioned according to vertical as well as horizontal structure. Almost all the response is taken up by the Lamb and Pekeris modes of the slowest westward-propagating gravity wave. At sea level, the Lamb-mode response is direct and is relatively insensitive to details of the temperature profile. The Pekeris mode at sea level has an indirect response-in competition with the Lamb mode-and, as has been known since the time of its discovery, it is quite sensitive to the temperature profile, in particular to stratopause temperature. In the standard atmosphere the Lamb mode contributes about +0.078 mb to tidal surface pressure at the equator and the Pekeris mode about –0.048 mb.The aim of this investigation is to illustrate some consequences of representing the tide in terms of the structures of free oscillations. To simplify that task as much as possible, all modifying influences were omitted, such as background wind and ocean or earth tide. Perhaps the main defect of this paper's implementation of the free-oscillation spectrum is that, in contrast to the conventional expansion in the structures of forced oscillations, it does not include dissipation, either implicity or explicity, and thus does not satisfy causality. Dissipation could be added implicity by means of an impedance condition, for example, which would cause up-going energy flux to exceed downgoing flux at the base of the isothermal top layer. To achieve complete causality, however, the dissipation must be modeled explicity. Nevertheless, since the Lamb and Pekeris modes are strongly trapped in the lower and middle atmosphere, where dissipation is rather weak (except possibly in the surface boundary layer), more realistic modeling is not likely to change the broad features of the present results.Symbols a earth's mean radius; expansion coefficient in (5.3) - b recursion variable in (7.4); proximity to resonance in (9.2) - c sound speed in (2.2); specific heatc _p in (2.2) - f Coriolis parameter 2sin in (2.2) - g standard surface gravity - h equivalent depth - i ; discretization index in (7.3) - j index for horizontal structure - k index for horizontal structure; upward unit vectork in (2.2) - m wave number in longitude - n spherical-harmonic degree; number of grid layers in a model layer - p tidal pressure perturbation; background pressurep ₀ - q heating function (energy per mass per time) - r tidal state vector in (2.1) - s tidal entropy perturbation; background entropys ₀ - t time - u tidal horizontal velocityu - w tidal vertical component of velocity - x excitation vector defined in (2.3); vertical coordinate lnp _*/p ₀ [except in (3.8), where it is lnp /p ₀] - y vertical-structure function in (7.1) - z geopotential height - A constant defined in (6.2) - C spherical-harmonic expansion coefficient in (3.6) - D vertical cross section defined in (5.6) and (5.9) - E eigenstate vector - F vertical-structure function for eigenstate pressure in (3.2) [re-defined with WKB scaling in (7.2)] - G vertical-structure function for eigenstate vertical velocity in (3.2) [re-defined with WKB scaling in (7.2)] - H pressure-scale height - I mode intensity defined in (8.1) - K quadratic form defined in (4.4) - L quadratic form defined in (4.4); horizontal-structure magnification factor defined in (5.11) - M vertical-structure magnification factor defined in (4.6) - P eigenstate pressure in (3.2); tidal pressure in (6.2) - R tidal state vector in (5.1) - S eigenstate entropy in (3.2); spherical surface area, in differential dS - T background molecular-scale (NOAA, 1976) absolute temperatureT ₀ - U eigenstate horizontal velocityU in (3.2); coefficient in (7.3) - V horizontal-structure functionV for eigenstate horizontal velocity in (3.2); recursion variable in (7.3) - W eigenstate vertical velocity in (3.2) - X excitation vector in (5.1) - Y surface spherical harmonic in (3.7) - Z Hough function defined in (3.6) - +dH/dz - (1––)/2 - Kronecker delta; Dirac delta; correction operator in (7.6) - equilibrium tide elevation - (square-root of Hough-function eigenvalue) - ratio of specific gas constant to specific heat for air=2/7 - longitude - - - background density ₀ - eigenstate frequency in (3.1) - proxy for heating functionq =c _P/t - latitude - tide frequency - operator for the limitz - horizontal-structure function for eigenstate pressure in (3.2) - Hough function defined in (6.2) - earth's rotation speed - horizontal gradient operator - ()₀ background variable - ()_* surface value of background variable - () value at base of isothermal top layer - Õ state vector with zerow-component - , energy product defined in (2.4) - | | energy norm - ()^* complex conjugate With 10 Figures     

A Field Study of the Mean Pressure About a Windbreak

To provide additional field data for assessingwindbreak flow models, mean ground-level pressurehas been measured upstream and downstream from along porous fence (height H = 1.25 m, resistancecoefficient k _r = 2.4). Measurements were madeduring periods of near-neutral stability and near-normallyincident flow, with the fence standing on bare soil(roughness length, z ₀ 0.8 cm;H/z ₀ 160), or within a plant canopy. The mean pressure field,measured far from the ends of the fence, was foundto be quite insensitive to mean wind direction( , zero for perpendicular flow), for| | less than about 25°.In the absence of a canopy, during each measurementperiod the minimum pressure occurred at the closestsampling location to leeward of the windbreak, thepressure-gradient in most cases beingmaximally-adverse in the immediate lee, and decayingwith increasing downwind distance (x). On one day ofmeasurements, however, the pressure gradient over2 x/H 6 (H = windbreak height) resembled theleeward plateau identified by Wang and Taklein their numerical studies. Perhaps thisoccasional feature was only due to instrumenterror. Nevertheless a plateau of sorts wasindicated in similar measurements by Judd andPrendergast (with H = 1.92 m, z ₀ 1.2 cm;H/z ₀ 160, k _r 3). Therefore,existence of a leeward pressure plateau behind athin fence cannot be definitely ruled out.When the windbreak was placed in a canopy, minimumsurface pressure was displaced downwind. Thisagrees with the wind-tunnel study of Judd, Raupach and Finnigan,and is consistent with a simple simulation reported here.     

Second-order closure study of the covariance between chemically reactive species in the surface layer

A second-order modelling technique is used to investigate the influence of turbulence on chemical reactions. The covariance and variance equations for the NO-O₃-NO₂ system are developed as a function of the ratio of the timescale of turbulence ( _t ) and the timescale of chemistry (_Ch): the first Damköhler number ( _t /_Ch). Special attention is given to the calculation of the covariance between NO and O₃ normalized by the product of their means, the so-called intensity of segregation (I _S ). This parameter quantifies the state of mixing of two chemical species.The intensity of segregation is calculated as a function of the flux of NO and the first Damköhler number. The model results presented illustrate the importance of taking the effect of turbulence on chemical reactions into account for higher values of the NO flux, for values of the ratio O₃/NO larger than 12.5 and for values of the ratio _t /_CH larger than 0.1. For such cases, the effective reaction rates are slower than if the chemical species are assumed to be uniformly mixed.     

A random-walk model for dispersion of heavy particles in turbulent air flow

A random-walk model is presented for calculating the dispersion of heavy particles in a turbulent air flow when only air turbulence statistics and the drag characteristics of the particle are known. Algebraic expressions for the modification of air velocity variance ² and Lagrangian autocorrelation tune-scale T _L,due to particle inertia effects, are derived. These expressions introduce only a very small computational overhead on the random-walk models for inertia-less particles of Wilson et al. (1983). Measurements of T _Land by Snyder and Lumley (1971) for four different particles are used to determine constants in the heavy-particle model. It is shown that the agreement between the model, for a single set of constants, and the dispersion measurements is good for the 47 m hollow glass, 87 m glass, and 47 m copper particles. The predictions for the 87 m corn pollen particles show less satisfactory agreement by underestimating dispersion measurements by 15% after 0.4s. Finally, some aspects of the model's application to spray dispersion in and above a crop canopy are considered.     

On Trajectory Curvature as a Selection Criterion for Valid Lagrangian Stochastic Dispersion Models

Recently Wilson and Flesch (Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 84, 411-426, 1997) suggested that the average increment d z to the orientation = arctan(w/u) of the Lagrangian velocity-fluctuation vector can be used to distinguish the better Lagrangian stochastic models within the well-mixed class. Here it is demonstrated that the specification of d z constitutes neither a sufficient or universally applicable criterion to distinguish the better Lagrangian stochastic models within the well-mixed class. The hypothesis made by Wilson and Flesch that Lagrangian stochastic models with /P_E irrotational are zero-spin models, having d z=0, is proven     

Gaseous and Particulate Oxidation Products Analysis of a Mixture of α-pinene + β-pinene/O3/Air in the Absence of Light and α-pinene + β-pinene/NOx/Air in the Presence of Natural Sunlight

The gas and particle phase reaction products of a mixture of the atmospherically important terpenes -pinene and -pinene with the atmospheric oxidants O₃ and OH/NO_x were investigated using both gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for identification and quantification of reaction products. The nighttime oxidation of a mixture of -pinene and -pinene in the presence of O₃/air, and the daytime oxidation of a mixture of -pinene + -pinene with NO_x air in the presence of natural sunlight were carried out in the University of North Carolina's large outdoor smog chamber (190 m³) located in Chatham County, North Carolina. Mass balances for gaseous and aerosol reaction products are reported over the course of the reaction. More than twenty-nine products were identified and/or quantified in this study. On average, measured gas and particle phase products accounted for 74 to 80% of the reacted -pinen/-pinene mixture carbon. Measurements show that a number of reaction products were found in both O₃ and NO_x system [pinonaldehyde, pinic acid, pinonic acid, pinalic-3-acid, 4-hydroxypinalic-3-acid, 4-oxonopinone, 1-hydroxy-nopinone, 3-hydroxy-nopinone, and nopinone]. Pinonic acid, pinic acid, pinalic-3-acid, 4-hydroxypinalic-3-acid, and 10-hydroxypinonic acid were observed in the early stage in the aerosol phase and may play an important role in the early formation of secondary aerosols.     

An improved calibration for tethered balloon wind measurements

A previously published technique for using tethered spherical balloons as anemometers for measuring light low-level winds has been further developed. Earlier data on the relationship between the aerodynamic drag coefficient and the Reynolds number of spherical rubber balloons were combined with a large number of new data and re-analysed; and the errors in the relationship were estimated. The results allowed a more accurate calculation of wind speed from the deflection of a tethered balloon from the vertical. When combined with a new technique for calculating the effects of the tether, this enabled light to moderate low-level winds at fixed heights up to 600 m or more to be measured with simple, cheap, and readily mobile equipment; and a slight modification of the technique allowed measurement of winds in and above fog. Wind speeds measured by the ballon technique showed reasonably good agreement with measurements by an anemometer carried beneath the balloon.Glossary of Symbols a, b, c Coefficients in the relationship between lnC _d and lnR - A Quantity under square root in solution for lnV whena0 - C _d Wind drag coefficient for balloon - C _dc Value ofC _d given by calibration curve of Table I - D Dynamic wind pressure force on balloon - F Buoyant free lift of balloon with load - Re Reynold's number of balloon (sphere) - R = Re/10⁵ - r Radius of sphere - T Tension in tether - V Wind speed - ₈₃() =(lnC _dc -lnC _d ) when 83° , or 0 for other - Error in lnC _d - Elevation of tether where attached to balloon - Elevation of balloon from ground tether point - Molecular viscosity of air - Ratio of circumference to diameter of circle - Density of air     

On characteristics of wind direction fluctuations in the surface layer

It is shown that the ratio of standard deviation of lateral velocity to the friction velocity, /u _*, and therefore wind direction fluctuations, are sensitive to mesoscale terrain properties. Under neutral conditions, /u _* is almost 40% larger in rolling terrain than over a horizontal surface. In the lee of a low mountain, the fluctuations may be 2.5 times as strong as over horizontal terrain. In contrast, vertical velocity fluctuations are little influenced by mesoscale terrain features.Now with Air Weather Service, Offutt AFB, Omaha, Nebraska.     

Calculation of velocity skewness in real and artificial plant canopies

Wind velocities within a plant canopy are much more strongly skewed than those of the air flow above. We have examined the governing Eulerian equations for the velocity products u _i, u _j u_k using data from a wind tunnel study with an artificial canopy consisting of an array of 5 cm lengths of monofilament fishing line, and from measurements in corn (Zea mays L).Simple parameterizations for pressure-velocity correlations, and for the quadruple velocity products allowed reasonably accurate calculations of the third moments using measured profiles of the mean velocity, variance and covariance fields. Comparisons of individual terms in the rate equations for ovu _i, u _j u _krevealed that diffusion (from above) and mean shear were most important in creating large skewness in the canopy. A drag term also contributed but was of lesser importance. These terms were balanced by return-to-isotropy and a turbulence interaction term. A quasi-Gaussian approximation considerably underestimated the magnitude of the fourth moments within the canopy.     

The influence of surface cover and climate on energy partitioning and evaporation in a subarctic wetland

Energy partitioning and evaporation were measured over three wetland surfaces in a subarctic coastal marsh during pre-growing and growing periods. These surfaces included an alder/willow woodland, a sedge marsh and a raised backshore sedge meadow. A combination model analysis was used to assess the relative importance of surface resistance and meteorological conditions on the magnitude of the Bowen ratio, , during the growing period.Overall, the three surfaces experienced important site-to-site and seasonal differences in and evaporation, Q _E. During the non-foliated period, Q _E was largest and was smallest for the open water marsh, while the dry backshore site experienced the smallest Q _E and largest . The non-foliated woodland assumed intermediate values of and Q _E. After the vegetation covers were established, the woodland assumed the smallest and largest Q _E flux. It was also found that at the marsh site increased with the presence of a vegetation cover.Wind direction was always an important factor in determining Q _E and at all sites. was substantially larger and Q _E was smaller for onshore winds (i.e., originating from James Bay) than for offshore winds. The combination model analysis showed that canopy resistance at all sites was largest during warm offshore winds, which were associated with large saturation deficits. However, the effect of increased canopy resistance on during offshore winds was offset by a large climatological resistance, resulting in small values and large Q _E. When winds originated from James Bay, canopy resistance was smaller than for offshore winds, but the climatological resistance also was much smaller, resulting in larger and small Q _E. The results have important implications for changes in land cover and climate on the regional water balance.     

Turbulent characteristics over a rough natural surface part I: Turbulent structures

A comprehensive experiment for turbulence and profiles has been carried out over a very rough natural mallee bushland. In Part I, the large inherent structures of the turbulence are presented. Short-period space-time correlations of wind and temperature indicate that periodic fluctuations pervade the lower surface layer above the canopy. These are associated with the appearance of large turbulent structures. Prominent peaks in the spectra are identified with the arrival of these structures, which show that they have a relatively large length scale over rough surfaces. These findings suggest a different mechanism for the enhancement of turbulent diffusivity over rough surfaces from that by the simple generation of turbulence by plant wakes.Analysis via conditional sampling of the turbulent components has revealed that bursts make almost the same contributions as gusts (at the measurement height of 8.4 m above ground) for either momentum or temperature under neutral conditions; for unstable conditions and high hole size H (see Equation (3)), gusts dominate for momentum while bursts dominate for heat transfer. This implies that the mechanisms for momentum and heat transfer are different.     

Wind stress over water waves: Field experiments on lake of Geneva

Summary A fixed platform (Fig.3), installed 100 m from the shoreline in 3 m water depth, was instrumented with velocity, temperature and wave-height sensors. 132 data (10 minutes averages) were analysed to calculate the wind stress; from these, 99 data were used to investigate the vertical distribution of the wind stress; all data are presented with Table 1.It was postulated that the total stress, _t being constant with height, is made up additively of two components, the wave-supporting stress, _w , and the turbulent stress, _c ; see Eq. 1. The vertical distribution of these two components is shown schematically in Fig. 1.The total stress, _t , evaluated outside the zone of wave influence, is given in the classical way with Fig. 4. The wave-supporting stress, _w (z), was evaluated from the data according to a relation proposed by Kitaigorodskii et al. (1984); it is given with Fig. 5. A height-dependency is clearly evident. The turbulent stress _c (z), was evaluated with data of the velocity gradient; it is given with Fig. 6. A height-dependency is not evident.The field data from the lake of Geneva give evidence that the additive relation of Eq. 1 seems to be justified.With 6 Figures     

The behaviour of aerosol optical depth during clear summer days in Athens,Greece

Summary The integral aerosol optical depths (k ) at the hour of 08:20 Local Standard Time (LST), are compared with those calculated previously at 11:20 and 14:20 LST, for clear days during summer in Athens over the period 1962–1988. The mean values at 08:20 LST were consistently lower than the values at 11:20 and 14:20 LST. The influence of the vertical wind profile on the values ofk was also investigated. A comparison was made of the wind profiles at 02:00 and 14:00 LST, for days in which the 11:20 and 14:20 LST values ofk were 0.200 andk 0.350, respectively. The corresponding bulk wind shear s was also found for the period 1980–1988. The most significant results occurred with the first category of days. The resultant wind velocities from the surface to the 900 hPa level, in each hour were higher by 2–4 m·s^–1 with respect to the corresponding values for the second category. At 02:00 LST the bulk wind shear showed a considerable difference (1.8) between the two categories of days in the surface to 700 hPa layer at 02:00 LST. Finally, the associated weather conditions that appear to initiate a period of low values ofk (k 0.200) at 11:20 and 14:20 LST were examined for the period 1980–1988. Fifteen such cases were identified and it was found that they all occurred after the passage of weak cold fronts.With 6 Figures