Profile characteristics of temporal stability of soil water storage in two land uses

Information on soil water storage (SWS) within soil profiles is essential in order to characterize hydrological and biological processes. One of the challenges is to develop low cost and efficient sampling strategies for area estimation of profile SWS. To test the existence of certain sample locations which consistently represent mean behavior irrespective of soil profile wetness, temporal stability of SWS in ten soil layers from 0 to 400 cm was analyzed in two land uses (grassland and shrub land), on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Temporal stability analyses were conducted using two methods viz. Spearman rank correlation coefficient (r _s) and mean relative differences. The results showed that both spatial variability and time stability of SWS increased with increasing soil depth, and this trend was mainly observed at above 200 cm depth. High r _s (p?<?0.01) indicated a strong temporal stability of spatial patterns for all soil layers. Temporal stability increased with increasing soil depth, based on either r _s or standard deviation of relative difference index. The boundary between the temporal unstable and stable layer of SWS for shrub land and grassland uses was 280 and 160 cm depth, respectively. No single location could represent the mean SWS for all ten soil layers. For temporal stable layers, however, some sampling locations could represent the mean SWS at different layers. With increasing soil depth, more locations were able to estimate the mean SWS of the area, and the accuracy of prediction for the representative locations also increased.     

1980-2017年青海省玉树地区季节冻土变化对气候变暖的响应

利用玉树地区5个气象台站1980-2017年逐月温度和最大冻土深度资料,采用线性趋势、相关及主成分分析等统计方法,对玉树地区最大季节冻土深度在气候变暖背景下的变化规律进行了详细探讨,在分析冻土深度与气温及地表温度变化关系的基础上给出最大冻土深度对温度变化的响应模型。结果表明：1980-2017年玉树地区最大冻土深度以10 cm·（10a）^-1速率呈显著下降趋势,年代际间变化则表现出“减-增-减-增”波动特征,年内对温度变化的响应在时间上存在一定滞后性;最大冻土深度空间分布呈“西北高、东南低”且具有明显的垂直地带性分布;温度变化对局地季节性冻土的影响有一定差异性,除平均最高地温外其余各温度因子与最大冻土深度变化具有良好的一致性,对冻土影响最大的是平均地温,其次为平均最低气温和平均气温,季节性冻土对气温变暖的响应呈现为退化状态。最大冻土深度变化的温度影响因子主成分回归表明,近年来气温和地温的显著升高是玉树地区冻土退化的最大驱动力,响应模型对估算玉树地区未来最大冻土深度的变化具有较高的可信度。     

Determination of support in soil sampling

Short-range variation of measurements of a soil characteristic is a function of the support (i.e., size, shape, and orientation of the physical sample taken at a sample point) of the soil samples. This short-range variance often shows up as a substantial component of the nugget effect in experimental semivariograms or estimated generalized covariance functions. Proper choice of support may substantially reduce short-range variance (or nugget) of measurements made at sample points and thereby reduce estimation variance in point or block kriging based on these measurements. Appropriate variance formulas and an example are given for determination of support when support is an array of vertical cores (or bucket auger samples) of equal depth and diameter.     

Effect of soil variability on the bearing capacity of clay and in slope stability problems

Site-specific geotechnical data are always random and variable in space. In the present study, a procedure for quantifying the variability in geotechnical characterization and design parameters is discussed using the site-specific cone tip resistance data (q_c) obtained from static cone penetration test (SCPT). The parameters for the spatial variability modeling of geotechnical parameters i.e. (i) existing trend function in the in situ q_c data; (ii) second moment statistics i.e. analysis of mean, variance, and auto-correlation structure of the soil strength and stiffness parameters; and (iii) inputs from the spatial correlation analysis, are utilized in the numerical modeling procedures using the finite difference numerical code FLAC 5.0. The influence of consideration of spatially variable soil parameters on the reliability-based geotechnical deign is studied for the two cases i.e. (a) bearing capacity analysis of a shallow foundation resting on a clayey soil, and (b) analysis of stability and deformation pattern of a cohesive-frictional soil slope. The study highlights the procedure for conducting a site-specific study using field test data such as SCPT in geotechnical analysis and demonstrates that a few additional computations involving soil variability provide a better insight into the role of variability in designs.     

祁连山退化高寒草甸土壤水分空间变异特征分析

利用传统统计学方法和地统计学方法,对祁连山地区受到过度放牧影响而退化为以狼毒为优势种的高寒草甸的土壤水分垂直变异特征、水平空间异质性以及分布特征进行了系统分析. 结果表明：在垂直方向上,0~100 cm土壤水分含量随深度的增加而逐渐减少,土壤水分含量的变化速度随深度的增加也趋于减少;土壤水分分布的变异系数在浅层和深层土壤较大,在中层土壤较小. 在水平方向上,0~40 cm土壤水分具有中等空间变异性,其中10~20 cm土壤水分变异性主要受根系的影响,随机部分引起的变异性最大;而在其他土壤层,随着深度的增加土壤水分含量由随机部分引起的空间异质性程度减弱,由空间自相关部分引起的异质性程度增强. 整体上,土壤水分含量与微地形关系密切,与距离溪流的远近程度正相关,与高程分布负相关.     

The Effect of Spatial Correlation of Cone Tip Resistance on the Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations

The effect of directional behaviour of correlation structure of cone tip resistance on the bearing capacity of shallow strip footing resting on cohesionless soil deposit in 2-D random field is analysed using probabilistic approach. The results obtained from the analysis show that the assumption of perfect (or infinite) correlation of cone tip resistance data leads to lower values of probability of failure. In contrast, the isotropic assumption of correlation behaviour based on vertical scale of fluctuation leads to higher values of probability of failure. The results also show that the transformation model would play a major role in the evaluation of variability of design property. In conclusion, the need for a proper evaluation methodology for calculation of correlation lengths of soil properties and their influence in foundation design is highlighted.     

Temporal stability of soil water storage and its influencing factors on a forestland hillslope during the rainy season in China’s Loess Plateau

Large-scale vegetation restoration in China’s Loess Plateau has been initiated by the central government to control soil and water losses since 1999. Knowledge of the spatio-temporal distribution of soil water storage (SWS) is critical to fully understand hydrological and ecological processes. This study analysed the temporal stability of the SWS pattern during the rainy season on a hillslope covered with Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.). The soil water content in eight soil layers was obtained at 21 locations during the rainy season in 2014 and 2015. The results showed that the SWS at the 21 locations followed a normal distribution, which indicated moderate variability with the coefficients of variation ranging from 14 to 33%. The mean SWS was lowest in the middle slope. The spatial pattern of SWS displayed strong temporal stability, and the Spearman correlation coefficient ranged from 0.42 to 0.99 (p < 0.05). There were significant differences in the temporal stability of SWS among different soil layers (p < 0.01). The spatial patterns of SWS distribution showed small differences in different periods. The best representative locations of SWS were found at different soil depths. The maximum RMSE and MAE at 0–1.6 m soil depth for the rainy season were 4.27 and 3.54 mm, respectively. The best representative locations determined during a short period (13 days) can be used to estimate the mean SWS well for the same rainy season, but not for the next rainy season. Samples of SWS collected over a fortnight during the rainy season were able to capture the spatial patterns of soil moisture. Roots were the main factor affecting the temporal stability of SWS. Rainfall increased the temporal stability of the soil water distribution pattern. In conclusion, the SWS during the rainy season had a strong temporal stability on the forestland hillslope.     

黄土高原南北样带不同土层土壤水分变异与模拟

为掌握黄土高原区域尺度土壤水分的时空分异特征及其影响因素,在黄土高原布设一条南北方向样带（N=86）,动态监测0~5 m剖面土壤含水率。采用经典统计学方法分析了土壤蓄水量的分布规律、变异特征及影响因素。结果表明:不同土层土壤水分均呈中等程度变异,并由南向北递减,样带0~5 m剖面平均土壤蓄水量为735 mm;随着土层深度的增加,土壤水分在空间上的变异增强,而在时间上的变异减弱,表明深层土壤水分具有较强的时间稳定性特征。干燥度、黏粒、归一化植被指数和坡度是影响区域土壤水分空间分布的主要因素,可作为一定置信水平上预测区域土壤水分空间分布状况的预测变量。     

一种静力触探模型箱试验装置的研制及其试验研究

设计了一套静力触探模型箱试验装置,该装置可以在模型箱水平面内任意位置进行贯入试验,贯入速率在一定范围可控,贯入倾角可调节。将该装置用于TJ-1模拟月壤静力触探力学特性的研究,试验结果表明：地基表层模拟月壤发生刺入剪切破坏;贯入阻力随贯入深度的增加而增加;探杆周围同一深度处土体的水平土压力表现出轴对称特征,其值在探头靠近土压力盒过程中逐渐增大至最大值,后随探头远离土压力盒又逐渐减小至0,且不同深度土体水平土压力峰值随贯入深度增加而增大;贯入点正下方土体的垂直土压力随贯入深度的增加而增加,主要影响范围约为距探头200 mm处。基于以上试验研究,表明该模型箱的设计是合理的,且TJ-1模拟月壤力学特性的研究成果能够为将来涉及到TJ-1模拟月壤的航天试验提供必要的技术参考。     

Estimating spatial correlation structures based on CPT data

Spatial correlation structures are usually used while modelling inherent uncertainty associated with soil properties. To retrieve this information a sufficient number of measurements and equal intervals between measurements or samples are always required. However, in practice, it is not usual to conduct site investigation in that way subject to a limited budget. Therefore, it is of interest to understand the possible bias created by using samples with unequal intervals. This research focuses on estimating the vertical spatial correlation structures of cone penetration tests (CPT) data conducted at a liquefaction site in Taiwan. The appropriate fitting range used in calibrating the correlation model is also discussed. The results show that cone tip resistance has larger correlation distances than that of sleeve friction. The estimated correlation distances of the CPT profiles are similar while using an equal sampling interval within a certain fitting range (denoted as the critical interval of measurements in this research). The results indicate that the effect of using different curve-fitting ranges is relatively insignificant for correlation distances of sleeve friction, whereas the correlation distances of cone tip resistance are more sensitive to different curve-fitting ranges. Moreover, the mean values of correlation distances are more constant for the equal sampling interval cases than for the unequal interval cases.     

Unidirectional cyclic resistance of Ticino and Toyoura sands from centrifuge cone penetration tests

The evaluation of the undrained cyclic resistance of sandy deposits is required to forecast the soil behaviour during an earthquake (liquefaction, cyclic mobility); due to the difficulties in obtaining undisturbed samples of most liquefiable soils, it is usually deduced from field test results such as cone penetration tests. This paper proposes a methodology to evaluate the undrained cyclic resistance from normalised cone resistance of two well-studied silica sands (Ticino and Toyoura), with different mineralogy, one mainly composed of feldspar, the other of quartz. The determination of the cyclic resistance of Ticino and Toyoura sands was achieved through undrained cyclic triaxial tests on reconstituted specimens. The tip resistance was deduced from CPTs performed in centrifuge with a miniaturised piezocone on homogeneous reconstituted models. Both the undrained cyclic and tip resistances were correlated with the state parameter ψ. Results of centrifuge and triaxial tests were combined through ψ to deduce the cyclic resistance ratio CRR directly from the normalised cone resistance. The shape of the curve relating CRR to the normalised cone resistance resulted unusual respect to all the recognised curves widespread in the geotechnical literature. The aim of the proposed correlations is to provide a useful instrument to improve the actual knowledge on liquefaction and to give a contribution based on the critical state soil mechanics framework to the development of refined correlations between the cyclic resistance of a sand and the results of cone penetration tests.     

非均质土壤中二维非饱和土壤水分运动的随机分析

以一水平向具有空间变异而垂直向为均质的二维非饱和流动区域中的均匀入渗问题为例,应用Monte Carlo随机模拟方法分析了土壤水分变量的随机统计特性及其一、二阶矩的时空分布规律。在随机分析过程中,将所研究的流动区域土壤水力特性的空间变异性以随空间位置变化的标定参数δ(x)表示,并将标定参数δ(x)视为一维随机空间函数的实现,应用随机生成模型来生成参数δ(x)的随机样本。通过随机模拟分析得到:垂直方向上负压水头方差与平均负压水头近似呈一线性关系;随入渗时间的延长,不同深度处表征负压水头空间变异结构的自相关函数趋于一稳定结构。     

青藏高原季节冻土区土壤冻融过程水热耦合特征

青藏高原被誉为“中华水塔”, 其广泛分布的多年冻土和季节冻土在保证我国水资源安全上具有重要的地位。基于2015年7月 - 2016年6月青海海北站季节冻土的水热监测数据（土壤含水量为未冻水含量）, 分析了冻结深度的季节变化和冻融过程水热运移特征。结果表明： 各土层土壤温度与土壤水分含量变化均表现为“U”型。土壤温度变化规律与日平均气温基本一致, 但滞后于日平均气温的变化, 滞后时间取决于土层深度。与多年冻土冻融规律不同, 海北站季节冻土表现为单向冻结、 双向融化特征, 冻融过程大致可划分为三个阶段： 冻结初期、 冻结稳定期和融化期。同时, 季节冻土消融速率大于冻结速率, 且融化过程中以浅层土壤融化为主。在冻结过程中, 土壤水分沿上、 下两个方向分别向冻结锋面迁移, 各土层土壤含水量迅速下降。而在融化过程中, 各土层土壤含水量逐渐增加, 且在浅层土壤形成一个土壤水分的高值区。土壤冻融过程中未冻水含量与各土层土壤温度具有较好的相关关系, 且浅层土壤拟合效果优于深层土壤。本研究对揭示高原关键水文过程以及寒区水热耦合模型构建具有重要意义。     

Mapping of the soil texture using geostatistical method (a case study of the Shahrekord plain, central Iran)

Soil texture is a key variable that reflect a number of soil properties such as soil permeability, water holding capacity, nutrient storage and availability, and soil erosion. The main objective of this study was to produce the kriged maps of soils of the Shahrekord region, central Iran. One hundred four soil samples were collected on a 375-m² sampling grid from the depths of 0–30, 30–60, and 60–100 centimeter, and their particle sizes were determined using hydrometer method. The results showed a moderately spatial correlation in the soil particles among sampling soil layers and across the study area. Moreover, increasing clay and therewith observation of heavier soil textures is evident from surface to subsurface layers of the soils in the studied area due to rainfall and/or irrigation agriculture. These findings indicated that study of the soil texture variation with depth can be used as a clue for site-specific management and precision agriculture. Moreover, we suggest further analysis by using other data layers like topographical parameters, land use, parent material, soil erosion, and any other information which might influence the spatial distribution of soil texture.     

青藏高原高寒草甸区土壤水分的空间异质性

通过网格(10m×10m)取样,用地统计学方法研究了青藏高原高寒草甸覆盖区域(110m×90m)浅层剖面(0~40cm)土壤水分的空间异质性特征。结果表明:在高寒草甸覆盖区0~30cm深度范围内,土壤水分均存在高度空间异质性,其中87.3%~74.9%的空间异质性是由空间自相关部分引起的,主要体现在201m以下尺度,10m以下随机因素对空间异质性作用较小;30~40cm土壤水分空间异质性由10m以下尺度随机因素导致的占42.3%,而自相关部分的空间异质性(57.7%)体现在10~87.2m尺度。随土层深度的增加,分维数D有逐渐增大的趋势,说明随深度增加高寒草甸区土壤水分自相关空间异质性程度在降低,而随机因素导致的空间异质性程度在增加。从4层的C₀/(C+C₀)值来看,10~20cm这一层的值最小,表明在这一层的系统变量的空间自相关性程度最高。说明高寒草甸区0~30cm土层的土壤水分含量是受降水、植被发育、根系分布、土壤特性和人为干扰等影响,其空间异质性主要受自相关因素控制,而30cm以下的土壤水分受自相关因素和随机因素共同控制。     

Distribution,stock, and influencing factors of soil organic carbon in an alpine meadow in the hinterland of the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau

Understanding the spatial distribution, stocks, and influencing factors of soil organic carbon (SOC) is important for understanding the current situation of SOC in alpine meadow ecosystems on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau (QTP). We sampled 23 soil profiles to a depth of 50 cm in a 33.5 hm\(^{2}\) plot in a typical meadow on the central QTP. The distribution, stock and influencing factors of SOC was then analyzed. The mean density of soil carbon content (SOCD) was 2.28 kg m\(^{-2}\) with a range of 5.99 kg  m\(^{-2}\). SOCD in the 0–10 cm layer was 3.94 kg m\(^{-2}\) and decreased quadratically with depth. The total stock of SOC to a depth of 50 cm was ca. 2950 t, the 0–10 and 0–30 cm layers accounting for 38 and 80%, respectively. SOCD varied moderately spatially and was distributed more homogeneously in the 0–10 and 40–50 cm layers but was more variable in the middle three layers. SOCD was significantly correlated positively with soil-water content, total porosity, and silt content and negatively with soil pH, bulk density, stone content and sand content. This study provides an important contribution to understanding the role of alpine meadows in the global carbon cycle. It also provides field data for model simulation and the management of alpine meadow ecosystems.     

1-, 2-, and 3-dimensional effective conductivity of aquifers

Starting with a stochastic differential equation with random coefficients describing steady-state flow, the effective hydraulic conductivity of 1-, 2-, and 3-dimensional aquifers is derived. The natural logarithm of hydraulic conductivity (lnK) is assumed to be heterogeneous, with a spatial trend, and isotropic. The effective conductivity relates the mean specific discharge in an aquifer to the mean hydraulic gradient, thus its importance in predicting Darcian discharge when field data represent mean or average values of conductivity or hydraulic head. Effective conductivity results are presented in exact form in terms of elementary functions after the introduction of special sets of coordinate transformations in two and three dimensions. It was determined that in one, two, and three dimensions, for the type of aquifer heterogeneity considered, the effective hydraulic conductivity depends on: (i) the angle between the gradient of the trend of lnK and the mean hydraulic gradient (which is zero in the one-dimensional situation); (2) (inversely) on the product of the magnitude of the trend gradient of lnK, b, and the correlation scale of lnK, and (3) (proportionally) on the variance of lnK, _f ² . The productb plays a central role in the stability of the results for effective hydraulic conductivity.     

考虑土参数自相关距离影响的单桩可靠性设计方法

在岩土工程设计中,准确地衡量土层参数的空间变异性决定了设计结构的可靠性和经济性,土参数的自相关距离是反映其空间变异性的一个重要指标。目前对于自相关距离与结构可靠性之间的关系的研究还很不完善。本文以单桩可靠性设计为例,选取工程场地的静力触探试验数据,引入随机场理论描述侧摩阻力和锥尖阻力的分布特征,利用递推平均法计算各地基土层侧摩阻力和锥尖阻力的自相关距离,在描述土层侧摩阻力和锥尖阻力的分布特征时考虑了自相关距离的影响,进一步结合蒙特卡洛法计算单桩的可靠指标。结果表明土参数取值考虑自相关距离的影响后,降低了土参数分布的离散程度,计算的单桩可靠指标更高。在保证桩基安全度的前提下,设计结果能够降低工程成本。     

基于地质统计学方法的孔压静力触探锥尖阻力固有空间变异性研究

地质统计学是用于模拟土体固有空间变异性的方法之一,以变差函数为工具,采用Kriging插值提供未采样点处土工参数值的最优线性无偏估计。将地质统计学方法应用于宿-新（宿迁至新沂）高速公路某试验段内孔压静力触探（piezocone penetration test,CPTU）锥尖阻力qt空间变异性研究中,采用回归分析移除数据中的趋势项,从而获得具有弱平稳性的残差数据。指数型理论变差函数能够准确描述试验段内土体的连续空间变异性特征。根据估计结果,试验段内锥尖阻力qt残差的变程具有显著各向异性,在水平方向和竖直方向分别为4.05 m和1.2 m。采用普通Kriging插值结合趋势分析,绘制了qt在试验段的空间分布图和平面投影图,用于指导工程实践。结果表明,普通Kriging插值的估计结果能够与试验段内实测资料形成较好的对比,仅仅在部分极值变化和远离采样点的位置处估计值可靠性会降低。     

基于黏弹性理论的沉桩再固结问题分析

假设桩周土体为饱和黏弹性介质,采用Burgers流变模型进行描述,同时考虑竖向和径向固结,建立了固结控制方程。根据不排水和自由排水情况,将边界条件分为3类并分别得到超孔隙水压力消散的级数解答,该解答能够为孔压静力触探反求固结系数提供一定的理论依据。在此基础上编制了应用程序,对Burgers流变模型中主要参数进行了分析。结果表明,地基表面自由排水、桩端地基不排水条件下,在一定深度以内的桩周土体的固结速度随深度降低,但超过某一范围后固结速度趋于稳定;上、下边界均自由排水条件下,固结速度随深度增加呈现下降、稳定、升高;上、下边界均不排水条件时,孔压消散速度不随深度变化,可简化为本解答仅考虑径向固结的特例。同时土体的流变特性对超孔隙水压力消散的影响比较显著,流变参数G1/1的变化使超孔隙水压力趋于某不为0的定值,且该值随G1/1比值的增大而增加;其他参数不变时,土体剪切刚度比G1/G2的增大会引起孔压消散速度的下降。