东北地区火山灾害及构造背景

东北地区是中国新生代火山活动最强烈的地区,新生代火山５００多座,火山熔岩和火山喷发碎屑堆积物分布面积５万余ｋｍ２。火山活动最强烈的时期始自渐新世,直至现代,分中新世、上新世、更新世三个高潮期。东北也是中国活火山最多、活火山群最集中的地区。它们是：①长白山火山,历史记载长白山火山有５次喷发,分别发生在公元１４１３,１５９７,１６６８,１７０２,１９０３年。长白山火山１０００年前的一次大爆发,火山灰向东一直到达日本,超过１０００ｋｍ,因此是世界历史时期最大的火山喷发之一。这次大爆发的火山泥流沿松花江…     

当代火山喷发碎屑堆积物的研究进展及其主要类型

火山喷发碎屑堆积物主要分为：火山喷发空中降落堆积物、火山碎屑、流状堆积物、火山泥流堆积物和火山基浪堆积物。简述了这些火山碎屑堆积物的成因及主要特征。     

长白山火山灾害及其对大型工程建设的影响

长白山火山是世界著名的活火山,历史时期有过多次喷发,有再次爆发的危险.长白山火山最大的一次爆发发生在公元1199-1200年,这次大爆发的火山灰最远到达距其1 000km远的日本北部.依据这次大爆发由火山喷发空中降落堆积物、火山碎屑流和火山泥流造成的巨大火山灾害,预测了长白山火山未来爆发火山灾害的类型、强度和范围,并编制了长白山火山未来爆发火山喷发空中降落堆积物灾害预测图、火山碎屑流灾害预测图和火山泥流灾害预测图.该研究可预防和减轻火山灾害,指导核电站等大型工程选址.     

长白山火山历史上最大火山爆发火山碎屑物层序与分布

长白山火山历史时期规模最大的火山喷发发生在1199~1200年。这次大爆发分为两次普林尼（Plinian）式喷发:第一次（早期）喷发称赤峰期,第二次（晚期）喷发称园池期。赤峰期喷发模式为：普林尼式喷发柱（赤峰空落浮岩层）—火山碎屑流（长白火山碎屑流层）—火山泥流（二道白河火山泥流层）,主要由火山碎屑流诱发火山泥流;园池期火山喷发模式为：普林尼式喷发柱（园池空落浮岩火山灰层）—火山碎屑流（冰场火山碎屑流层）。两次普林尼式喷发空落火山碎屑物总量约120 km³,长白火山碎屑流层总量约8 km³,冰场火山碎屑流层总量约0.5 km³,火山泥流堆积总量约为2 km³。主要论述了这次大爆发的火山喷发碎屑堆积物的层序和分布。     

长白山天池火山千年大喷发火山碎屑流堆积相特征

发生于公元946年的长白山天池火山千年大喷发（Millennium Eruption,ME）形成的火山碎屑堆积物体积高达100~172km³,并可分为大规模的ME-Ⅰ和小规模的ME-Ⅱ两个喷发阶段。通过对围绕长白山天池火山53个典型露头剖面进行火山地质测量（单元构成、垂向堆积序列和堆积特征）,结合筛析法粒度分析、偏光显微镜成分分析,刻画了长白山千年大喷发火山碎屑流堆积物特征,探讨了相和亚相划分,并建立了火山碎屑流搬运和堆积模式。根据火山碎屑的堆积特征,将长白山千年大喷发火山碎屑流堆积分为峡谷充填火山碎屑流相（包括块状峡谷充填亚相和层状峡谷充填亚相）和火山碎屑流冲击扇相（包括扇头亚相和扇体亚相）等两相四亚相。峡谷充填火山碎屑流相主要发育在天池火山锥体周缘距离喷发中心8~23km左右范围内（坡度在15°~60°之间）的火山U型谷中;火山碎屑流冲积扇相主要发育在距离喷发中心23~45km左右范围内,地形相对平缓的熔岩台地处（坡度在5°~15°之间）,火山碎屑流的搬运不受地形限制,一般形成较大纵横比扇状堆积。块状峡谷充填亚相和扇体亚相以块状混杂堆积为主要特征,而层状峡谷充填亚相和扇头亚相则以多火山碎屑流单元垂向叠加为主要特征。多单元叠加现象是由搬运过程中火山碎屑流单元发生分离增生作用形成。根据火山碎屑流的最大分布范围和厚度,如果再次发生与长白山千年大喷发类似规模的普林尼式喷发,至少距长白山天池火山喷发中心45km范围内具有巨大的火山碎屑流灾害风险。该研究有利于进一步深入认识长白山千年大喷发火山碎屑流堆积物的空间分布特征和相变规律,对火山碎屑喷发灾害的预防具有指导作用。     

中国东北地区4个活火山群的火山灾害

东北地区有4个活火山群,它们是长白山火山群 、五大连池火山群、龙岗火山群和镜泊湖火山群。这些活火山群中的活火山有潜在的喷发危险,一旦再次爆发,由火山喷发空中降落堆积物、火山泥流、火山碎屑流、火山碎屑崩塌和熔岩流等造成的灾害和环境污染将是巨大的。当务之急是重塑火山喷发历史和模式,编制火山灾害预测图。东北地区火山灾害类型如此之多,影响范围如此之广,进行专项火山灾害调查研究是必须的。     

火山地层学与火山架构:以长白山火山为例

将长白山火山喷出物按成岩方式和岩相可分为柱状节理熔岩、火山碎屑流和火山泥石流等20种基本类型,它们均可构成可识别的19种火山地层单元。火山架构是由被火山地层界面所围限的诸多基本地层单元叠置而成。一个复杂的火山组合体,可以通过界面识别,拆分成若干火山地层单元,从而实现对火山堆积体的分解描述和整体认知。基性火山喷发区常见的5种火山架构(单源火山田、洪泛玄武岩田、熔岩盾火山、中心式火山和层状复合火山),在长白山地区相继发育。本区火山灾害可分为原发和次生2种。原发性灾害指火山再次喷发引发的灾害,巨量天池水可沿火山断裂下渗,使气水-岩浆喷发的可能性和爆炸强度增加,同时还能引发火山泥石流。次生灾害主要源于火山碎屑堆积物的再搬运和熔岩火山体的崩塌。熔岩火山在本区分布最广,但其底座常为3～7m厚的松散沉积层,这犹如坐落在软地基之上的摩天大厦,是很不稳定的火山架构。熔岩体下伏的这些风化壳型松散层,只要发生流变或差异性沉陷,就会引发山体滑坡和山崩。因此,加强相关基础地质调查,对事关国计民生的重点区段开展次生火山灾害风险评估,势在必行。     

长白山火山喷发物的堆积类型及火山活动机理

本文对长白山火山地质发展过程中的两大喷发期和七个喷发阶段作了系统阐述,详细划分、描述了喷发物堆积类型及特征,论述了火山活动机理及演化历程。首次指出长白山火山基浪堆积,对新发现的侵入相和次火山岩相岩百与喷出相岩石做了对比,指出同源于一个碱性岩浆房。     

火山喷发及其环境效应

火山活动是地球内能和热量释放的一种形式,火山喷发对人类生存环境的影响包括两个方面,即：灾害效应和资源效应。一方面,火山喷发是一种自然灾害,它不仅对人类产生直接危害,而且还会诱发次生灾害或对人类的生存环境造成长期的危害。其中对人类生命财产构成严重威胁的火山灾害有熔岩流、火山碎屑流、火山泥流和火山海啸。另一方面,火山活动为人类提供了丰富的矿产资源、地热资源和旅游资源。     

长白山天池地区全新世以来火山活动及其特征

长白山火山全新世规模最大的喷发活动发生在公元1199-1200年,即800年前的大爆发,被确定为普林尼或布里尼(Plinian)式喷发。这次大爆发形成体积巨大的、分布广泛的以空中降落堆积物为主的火山喷发碎屑堆积物,在长白山火山周围,远至日本都留下了地质记录。文章辨认并划分了这次大爆发火山碎屑物的成因类型:火山喷发空中降落堆积物(airfalltephra)、火山碎屑流(pyroclasticflow)状堆积物和火山泥流(lahar)堆积物,并且点、面结合,近、远和国内、国外兼顾,分析了这些火山碎屑物的主要特征、分布和相互关系,进而确定这些火山碎屑物分别属于两次普林尼式爆发。第1次(早期)普林尼式爆发称赤峰期,火山喷发模式为:普林尼式喷发柱(赤峰空落浮岩层)-火山碎屑流(长白山火山碎屑流层),随即主要由火山碎屑流诱发火山泥流(二道白河火山泥流层);第2次(晚期)普林尼式爆发称园池期,喷发模式为:普林尼式喷发柱(园池空落浮岩火山灰层)-火山碎屑流(冰场火山碎屑流层)。在层序上将气象站期碱流岩置于800年前大爆发火山碎屑物之下是正确的,其时代为晚更新世-全新世早期。     

Lahar-Triggering Mechanisms and Hazard at Ruapehu Volcano,New Zealand

Late Holocene volcanic activity at Ruapehu has been characterizedby the generation of small (<10⁵ m³) to very large (>10⁷ m³) lahars and repeated,small to medium (VEI 1-3) tephra-producing eruptions. The Onetapu Formation groupsall lahar deposits that accumulated during the last 2,000 years on the southeastern Ruapehu ring plain. The andesitic tephras are grouped within the Tufa Trig Formation and are intercalated within the laharic sequence. By correlating these two formations with new radiocarbon ages obtained on interbedded paleosols, we reconstruct a detailed volcanic history of Ruapehu for this period.Clast assemblages identified in the laharic sequences record thelithologies of synchronous tephras and rocks within the source region. These assemblages suggest a strong genetic link between the development of Crater Lake, the variation in eruptivestyles, and the production of lahars.Lahar-triggering mechanisms include: (1) flank collapse ofhydrothermally altered and unstable portions of the cone; (2) phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions favoring the generation of snow-rich slurries and hyperconcentrated stream flows; (3) suddenCrater Lake rim collapse, releasing large amounts of water inducing debris flows; and (4) eruptions that generate large volumes of tephra on snow-covered slopes, later remobilized by heavy rain.Two major lahars in the Onetapu sequence had a volume 4 × 10⁷ m³, roughly 1 to 2 orders of magnitude larger than the 1953event leading to the Tangiwai disaster (151 casualties). One of these lahars crossed over a lowinterfluve currently separating the Whangaehu River from a stream feeding the Tongariro River,sometime since peat accumulated between AD 1400 and AD 1660. A repetition of such a large-scaleevent would have devastating consequences on the infrastructure, economy and environment withinthe distal areas of the two catchments. The 1995–1996 eruptions were a timely reminder ofthe hazards posed by the volcano.     

Sedimentology of a sandur formed by multiple jökulhlaups,Kverkfjöll,Iceland

The Kverkfjöll sandur in north Iceland is the furthest upstream of a suite of fluvial landforms extending for 200 km along the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river. Incision of the sandur exposes over 3 km of sedimentary sections, up to 15 m in height. A sandur wide, well-bedded succession of matrix-rich cobble-gravel and pebble/granule gravel, with individual beds 0.2 to 0.5 m thick indicates that the sandur is primarily the product of sandur-wide sheet-floods, with sediment-rich hyperconcentrated flows and also some debris flows and channelised turbulent flows. This interpretation is evidenced by bedded hyperconcentrated flow deposits occurring as laterally extensive tabular depositional units that dominate the entire sandur, reflecting the unconfined nature of the flow. Clast-supported boulder-gravel units interpreted as the product of macroturbulent flow occur in relatively narrow, but deep channels. The sedimentary succession is interpreted as the product of at least six volcanically generated catastrophic outburst floods (jökulhlaups) during the Little Ice Age. The sedimentology of these Little Ice Age flood deposits, on a small, high-gradient sandur, contrasts strongly with the deposits of volcanically-generated jökulhlaups on large, low-gradient coastal sandar, and sandar associated with retreating glaciers which have been the basis for most previous models of jökulhlaup sedimentation.     

Characteristics of debris flow caused by outburst of glacial lake in Boqu river,Xizang, China, 1981

A catastrophic outburst of a moraine dammed lake at the head of a tributary of Boqu river on the S-flank of the Tibetan Himalayas took place in 1981. The flood with a peak discharge of 15920 m³/s at the breach and 2316 m³/s at Bharabise, more than 50 km downstream, was 16 times larger than the average annual flood of the river, and caused a large scale sediment morement. Spreading over 50 km or more along Boqu river, the debris flow involved a total of about 4 mio. m³ of solid material. The debris flow valley may be divided into three sections according to erosion and deposition: the section of vertical erosion, the section of lateral erosion-flow passage, and the section of lateral erosion-deposition. Half of the total solid materials was derived from the vertical erosion in the first section and the other half from the lateral erosion in the latter two sections. This debris flow was a sediment-laminated movement under the conditions of an extraordinary flood. The moving layer of sediment may be estimated as being 4 to 10 m in thickness.Debris flow deposits with well developed morphologies are chiefly scattered along the last section of the debris flow valley. The most significant morphologies include the levee (a leteral deposit), the stone pile (a flow surge deposit) and the residual terrace (the residue of the flow). The sedimentology of these deposits is characteristicly coarse grain and of mixed composition with a lack of bedding and sorting, the presence of inverse grading, parallelism of long axes and imbrication. All these features imply an accordance with the grain flow concept developed by R. A. Bagnold in the mechanics of sediment movement.     

基于数值模拟的长白山天池火山泥石流灾害展布范围分析及预测

利用模拟软件LAHARZ,基于长白山天池火山1/25万数字地形图,对二道白河、松花江、鸭绿江以及图们江4条泥石流易发河道进行了火山泥石流的数值模拟。模拟中依据历史喷发柱高度和地形平均坡度设定能量锥最佳阈值为0.07;通过实际河流与计算所得河流的对比匹配,设定河流最佳阈值为5 000;根据历史上长白山地区火山泥石流的爆发规模,设定了10⁸ m3,10⁹ m3,10¹⁰ m3和10¹¹ m³ 4个体积阈值。通过模拟计算发现,不同河道设定不同阈值流动影响范围有所不同,其灾害规模也相应变化,且模拟所得灾害分布范围与长白山地区的历史火山泥石流分布范围相似。依据模拟计算结果,将长白山火山泥石流灾害区划为4级,其对应的覆盖半径分别约为40 km,70 km,80 km和100 km,该结果可为长白山地区的建设规划提供参考。另外,该模型与灾害区划的方法也可为其它火山区的火山泥石流灾害区划提供借鉴。     

Ein Beitrag zur Vulkanologie Süd-Perus

The Nevado Coropuna (6400 m/19 500 ft) is the largest and highest volcano of Peru and is situated 150 km NW of the town of Arequipa at a distance of 110 km from the Pacific coast. Results of a thorough petrographic study are presented including microprobe and radiometric measurements.

1. The constituent rocks building up the Coropuna volcano are lavas and rhyodacitic ash flows intercalated between older and younger lavas at the foot of the cone. The volcanic edifice rests on older ignimbrite sheets (14 m. y.) exposed only in the surrounding valleys.
2. The lavas are typically latite-andesites which contain some normative quartz in the groundmass. Plagioclase has 37–47% An. The depth of the phenocryst crystallization is calculated at 8–12 km based on the equilibrium between plagioclase, clinopyroxene and groundmass.
3. The Coropuna volcano has existed since the Late Miocene (5 m. y.). Approximately 2 m. y. ago a catastrophic explosion produced large rhyodacitic ignimbrite deposits around the foot of the mountain. Thereafter the effusion of lavas was dominant through Holocene times with the latest lavas becoming slightly more acidic (62% SiO₂).
4. 30–40 km to the W and SW of the Coropuna some outliers of the coastal batholites are exposed. Both their radiometric age (Cretaceous, 97 m. y.) and their chemical composition are in disagreement with the notion of these granodioritic to gabbroic rocks as the intrusive equivalents of the young volcanics.

     

Intra- and extra-caldera volcaniclastic facies and geomorphic characteristics of a frequently active mafic island–arc volcano, Ambrym Island, Vanuatu

Ambrym is one of the most voluminous active volcanoes in the Melanesian arc. It consists of a 35 by 50 km island elongated east–west, parallel with an active fissure zone. The central part of Ambrym, about 800 m above sea level, contains a 12 kilometre-wide caldera, with two active intra-caldera cone-complexes, Marum and Benbow. These frequently erupting complexes provide large volumes of tephra (lapilli and ash) to fill the surrounding caldera and create an exceptionally large devegetated plateau “ash plain”, as well as sediment-choked fluvial systems leading outward from the summit caldera. Deposits from fall, subordinate base surge and small-volume pyroclastic (scoria) flows dominate the volcaniclastic sequences in near vent regions. Frequent and high-intensity rainfall results in rapid erosion of freshly deposited tephra, forming small-scale debris flow- and modified grain flow-dominated deposits. Box-shaped channel systems are initially deep and narrow on the upper flanks of the composite cones and are filled bank-to-bank with lapilli-dominated debris flow deposits. These units spill out into larger channel systems forming debris aprons of thousands of overlapping and anastomosing long, narrow lobes of poorly sorted lapilli-dominated deposits. These deposits are typically remobilised by hyperconcentrated flows, debris-rich stream flows and rare debris flows that pass down increasingly shallower and broader box-shaped valleys. Lenses and lags of fines and primary fall deposits occur interbedded between the dominantly tabular hyperconcentrated flow deposits of these reaches. Aeolian sedimentation forms elongated sand dunes flanking the western rim of the ash-plain. Outside the caldera, initially steep-sided immature box-canyons are formed again, conveying dominantly hyperconcentrated flow deposits. These gradually pass into broad channels on lesser gradients in coastal areas and terminate at the coast in the form of prograding fans of ash-dominated deposits. The extra-caldera deposits are typically better sorted and contain other bedding features characteristic of more dilute fluvial flows and transitional hyperconcentrated flows. These outer flank volcaniclastics fill valleys to modify restricted portions of the dominantly constructional landscape (lava flows, and satellite cones) of Ambrym. Apparent maturity of the volcanic system has resulted in the subsidence of the present summit caldera at a similar rate to its infill by volcaniclastic deposits.     

Post-eruptive lahars at Kali Putih following the 2010 eruption of Merapi volcano,Indonesia: occurrences and impacts

Following the 2010 VEI 4 eruption of Merapi volcano, more than 250 lahars were triggered during two rainy seasons from October 2010 to March 2012. This high number of post-eruption lahars mainly occurred in the Kali (valley) Putih watershed and was mostly associated with high-magnitude rainstorms. A lahar occurring on January 8, 2011, caused significant damage to homes in several communities, bridges, sabo dams, and agricultural crops. The aims of this contribution are to document the impacts of lahars on the Kali Putih watershed and specifically (1) to analyze the lahar frequency during the period of 1969–2012 on an inter-annual and intra-annual basis and to determine the link between the volume of tephra and the frequency of lahars; (2) to detail the lahar trajectory and channel evolution following the January 8th lahar; (3) to map the spatial distribution of the thickness and geomorphic effects of the lahar deposit; and (4) to determine the impacts of the lahar on the infrastructure (sabo dams and roads) and settlements in the distal area of the volcano. The Kali Putih watershed has experienced 62 lahars, which represent 22% of all lahars triggered on 17 rivers at Merapi between 2010 and 2012. The main geomorphic impacts are: (1) excessive sedimentation in valleys, settlements and agricultural areas; (2) undercutting of the river banks by as much as 50 m, accompanied by channel widening; and (3) abrupt changes in the river channel direction in the distal area (15–20 km downstream of the volcano). About 19 sabo dams were damaged, and 3 were totally destroyed. Over 307 houses were damaged, and the National Road Yogyakarta–Semarang was regularly cut (18 times during approximately 25 days). Although the sabo dams on Kali Putih were originally constructed to protect distal areas from lahar damage, they had little effect on the 2010–2012 rain-triggered lahars. The underlying design of those dams along this river is one of the main reasons for the major destruction in this sector of the volcano’s lower slope. The catch basin capacity of the sabo dam was only 1.75?×?10⁶ m³, whereas the total volume of the 2010–2011 lahars exceeded 5?×?10⁶ m³. In order to prepare for future lahars, the government has invested in significant mitigation measures, ranging from structural approaches (e.g., building new sabo dams and developing an early warning system) to non-structural approaches (e.g., contingency and preparedness planning and hazard education).

     

Geophysical flows impacting a flexible barrier: effects of solid-fluid interaction

Flexible barriers undergo large deformation to extend the impact duration, and thereby reduce the impact load of geophysical flows. The performance of flexible barriers remains a crucial challenge because there currently lacks a comprehensive criterion for estimating impact load. In this study, a series of centrifuge tests were carried out to investigate different geophysical flow types impacting an instrumented flexible barrier. The geophysical flows modelled include covered in this study include flood, hyperconcentrated flow, debris flow, and dry debris avalanche. Results reveal that the relationship between the Froude number, Fr, and the pressure coefficient α strongly depends on the formation of static deposits called dead zones which induce static loads and whether a run-up or pile-up impact mechanism develops. Test results demonstrate that flexible barriers can attenuate peak impact loads of flood, hyperconcentrated flow, and debris flow by up to 50% compared to rigid barriers. Furthermore, flexible barriers attenuate the impact load of dry debris avalanche by enabling the dry debris to reach an active failure state through large deformation. Examination of the state of static debris deposits behind the barriers indicates that hyperconcentrated and debris flows are strongly influenced by whether excessive pore water pressures regulate the depositional process of particles during the impact process. This results in significant particle rearrangement and similar state of static debris behind rigid barrier and the deformed full-retention flexible barrier, and thus the static loads on both barriers converge.     

Textural characteristics of the Krishna River sediments,India

To evaluate the magnitude of variation in grain size distribution in the Krishna river, bed sediments and suspended sediments collected along the length of the river have been studied. There are both temporal and seasonal variation in the grain size distribution of suspended sediments. The statistical parameters show the change along the river in a non-linear fashion which may be due to human interference and due to different types of sediments contributed by tributaries to the Krishna river. The suspended sediments are mostly fine silt (4 to 16m), poorly sorted, showing coarse to fine skewed and are platyto leptokurtic. The bed sediments are mostly medium sand (350m) showing moderate to well sorted, coarse to fine skewed and are platy- to leptokurtic. The CM diagram of Krishna river bed sediments suggests that deposition takes place by (1) rolling (2) rolling and suspension and (3) graded suspension. The suspended sediments represent deposits of uniform suspension.