横观各向同性水敏性地层斜井眼坍塌压力确定

在以泥页岩为目标储层的非常规油气藏水平井开发中, 钻遇井壁的稳定性问题突出, 一方面是由于在设计钻井液密度时简单采用各向同性介质模型和Mohr-Coulomb强度准则, 另一方面则是由于选用的钻井液性能欠佳, 难以保证建井全过程的井壁稳定。为此, 将地层视为横观各向同性介质, 采用Mogi-Coulomb强度准则判别岩石基体和层理面的稳定性, 同时考虑泥页岩水化作用对岩石力学强度参数的影响, 建立了水敏性地层井壁稳定分析模型, 分析了坍塌压力随井斜、方位、钻井液性能、钻井时间等因素的变化规律。研究结果表明:对于具有显著层理面结构的泥页岩地层, 采用横观各向同性模型比各向同性介质模型更能描述强度的各向异性;采用Mogi-Coulomb准则比Mohr-Coulomb强度准则得到的坍塌压力值与实际吻合程度更高, 在保证井壁稳定的前提下有利于降低钻井液密度, 实现钻井提速;提高钻井液封堵能力、减小泥页岩吸水扩散能力, 有利于延长坍塌周期。利用东濮、威远、焦石坝等工区多口页岩气水平井的实钻资料对本文方法进行了验证, 证实本文方法确定的钻井液密度窗口下值更能满足安全钻井需求。     

Analysis of the External Pressure on Casings Induced by Salt-Gypsum Creep in Build-up Sections for Horizontal Wells

To alleviate the problems of casing collapse induced by the coupling effect of salt creep movement, as it relates to the curved sections of horizontal wells, an experimental approach was taken to determine the creep (visco-elastic) property of the salt-gypsum formation, using finite-difference software to establish a creep model with curved casing, wellbore and salt formation. With this model, the effects of borehole curvature, drilling direction and casing thickness on external pressure on casing were analyzed, and casing deformation in the non-uniform in situ stress field was simulated. For horizontal wells drilled through salt-gypsum formations, this analysis led to the following conclusions: (1) the casing tends to be much safer when drilling is undertaken along the direction of the minimum horizontal stress; (2) casing deformation occurs and stress increases as the borehole curvature increases; (3) for the same curvature and drilling direction, thicker casings are safer; (4) as the creep time increases, the external pressure on the casing rapidly increases until it reaches its maximum value, whereupon it stays at that value; (5) under the effect of non-uniform in situ stress, a larger non-uniform coefficient would result in greater external pressure on the casing. This model has been successfully applied to analyze the external pressure on curved casings in a build-up section for horizontal wells drilled through salt-gypsum formations in an oilfield in Northwest China. The model has helped to improve the casing design and reduce drilling downtime with greater wellbore stability in salt-gypsum formations.     

陵页岩气井新工具的应用与经济评价

涪陵地区页岩层蕴含着丰富的天然气资源,具有较大的开采前景。区块主要目的层为上奥陶统五峰组-下志留统龙马溪组下部页岩气层。上部泥页岩地层井壁稳定性差,地层承压能力低,溶洞发育、易坍塌、易漏失;海相沉积地层流体分布复杂,部分地层岩性变化大,可钻性差,机械钻速较低;采用丛式布井,水平井井眼轨迹复杂,靶前位移大,大井眼定向扭方位困难、托压严重。现场试验使用了旋转导向、扭力冲击器、旋冲马达、水力振荡器等新技术、新工具,大幅度提高机械钻速,缩短钻井周期,取得一定的经济效益。阐述了几种新技术和新工具的工作原理、现场应用情况,并对其经济效果进行了评价。     

Maintaining the stability of deviated and horizontal wells: Effects of mechanical,chemical and thermal phenomena on well designs

Wellbore instability, particularly in shale formations, is regarded as a major challenge in drilling operations. Many factors, such as rock properties, in-situ stresses, chemical interactions between shale and drilling fluids, and thermal effects, should be considered in well trajectory designs and drilling fluid formulations in order to mitigate wellbore instability-related problems. A comprehensive study of wellbore stability in shale formations that takes into account the three-dimensional earth stresses around the wellbore as well as chemical and thermal effects is presented in this work. The effects of borehole configuration (e.g. inclination and azimuth), rock properties (e.g. strength, Young's modulus, membrane efficiency and permeability), temperature and drilling fluid properties (e.g. mud density and chemical concentrations) on wellbore stability in shale formations have been investigated. Results from this study indicate that for low-permeability shales, chemical interactions between the shale and water-based fluids play an important role. Not only is the activity of the water important but the diffusion of ions is also a significant factor for saline fluids. The cooling of drilling fluids is found to be beneficial in preventing compressive failure. However, decreasing the mud temperature can be detrimental since it reduces the fracturing pressure of the formation, which can result in lost-circulation problems. The magnitude of thermal effects depends on shale properties, earth stresses and wellbore orientation and deviation. Conditions are identified when chemical and thermal effects play a significant role in determining the mud-weight window when designing drilling programmes for horizontal and deviated wells. The results presented in this paper will help in reducing the risks associated with wellbore instability and thereby lowering the overall non-productive times and drilling costs.     

中牟页岩气区块泥页岩井壁稳定影响因素分析及技术对策

井壁失稳是钻井过程中常常遇见的难题之一,尤其在钻遇泥页岩井段。针对河南中牟页岩气区块在山西组-太原组泥页岩钻进过程中发生井壁坍塌掉块、卡钻、井径扩大率大等复杂情况,利用MY1井钻井岩心从泥页岩类型划分、孔渗特征、微观结构、岩石力学以及地应力等方面开展井壁稳定性影响因素实验分析。通过分析可知,中牟区块泥页岩属硬脆性泥页岩,造成井壁失稳的主要因素为地层非均质性强,岩石脆性程度较高,微裂缝发育,易导致井壁机械剥落、坍塌掉块。通过合理控制钻井液密度、优化井身结构及钻井参数、研发低自由水强封堵钻井液提高井壁稳定性,在区块钻井实践中取得了较好的应用效果,基本解决了井壁失稳难题。     

Role of Geomechanics in Assessing the Feasibility of CO2 Sequestration in Depleted Hydrocarbon Sandstone Reservoirs

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) sequestration in depleted sandstone hydrocarbon reservoirs could be complicated by a number of geomechanical problems associated with well drilling, completions, and CO₂ injection. The initial production of hydrocarbons (gas or oil) and the resulting pressure depletion as well as associated reduction in horizontal stresses (e.g., fracture gradient) narrow the operational drilling mud weight window, which could exacerbate wellbore instabilities while infill drilling. Well completions (casing, liners, etc.) may experience solids flowback to the injector wells when injection is interrupted due to CO₂ supply or during required system maintenance. CO₂ injection alters the pressure and temperature in the near wellbore region, which could cause fault reactivation or thermal fracturing. In addition, the injection pressure may exceed the maximum sustainable storage pressure, and cause fracturing and fault reactivation within the reservoirs or bounding formations. A systematic approach has been developed for geomechanical assessments for CO₂ storage in depleted reservoirs. The approach requires a robust field geomechanical model with its components derived from drilling and production data as well as from wireline logs of historical wells. This approach is described in detail in this paper together with a recent study on a depleted gas field in the North Sea considered for CO₂ sequestration. The particular case study shows that there is a limitation on maximum allowable well inclinations, 45° if aligning with the maximum horizontal stress direction and 65° if aligning with the minimum horizontal stress direction, beyond which wellbore failure would become critical while drilling. Evaluation of sanding risks indicates no sand control installations would be needed for injector wells. Fracturing and faulting assessments confirm that the fracturing pressure of caprock is significantly higher than the planned CO₂ injection and storage pressures for an ideal case, in which the total field horizontal stresses increase with the reservoir re-pressurization in a manner opposite to their reduction with the reservoir depletion. However, as the most pessimistic case of assuming the total horizontal stresses staying the same over the CO₂ injection, faulting could be reactivated on a fault with the least favorable geometry once the reservoir pressure reaches approximately 7.7 MPa. In addition, the initial CO₂ injection could lead to a high risk that a fault with a cohesion of less than 5.1 MPa could be activated due to the significant effect of reduced temperature on the field stresses around the injection site.     

层理性地层钻井稳定性分析模型

针对钻井工程常遇的层理性地层,以应力张量坐标转换关系和井孔应力集中方程为基础,引入弱面剪切滑动和岩体Mogi-Coulomb双强度准则,建立了分析层理性地层井壁稳定性的模型。对含层理弱面的典型油气储层中钻井的合理钻井液密度和安全钻井方向进行研究,结果表明：层理面的存在加剧了井壁围岩的破坏,且改变了围岩破坏的位置;水平井坍塌压力随着钻井方向变化而连续性变化,其在特定钻井方向取得最小坍塌压力;斜井取得最小坍塌压力的方位与层理面在空间中并不垂直,空间中关于主平面对称的斜井破裂压力相同;既可获得较大钻井液安全压力窗口又可取得较小坍塌压力的方向为优选钻井方向,在钻井液压力窗口变化大的倾向上钻井需严格控制钻井轨迹曲线。     

Geomechanical Characteristics of Gas Shales: A Case Study in the North Perth Basin

Gas shales are one type of unconventional reservoirs which have attracted significant attention for gas production in recent years. Gas production from very tight shales requires employment of hydraulic fracturing as a stimulation technique. To design hydraulic fracture operation the mechanical properties of the targeted and surrounding formations should be estimated. Also, the magnitude and orientation of in situ stresses in the field need to be known to estimate the fracture initiation and propagation pressures. This study focuses on gas shale characteristics in the North Perth Basin and uses data corresponding to well Arrowsmith-2 (AS-2) which is the first dedicated shale gas well drilled in Western Australia. A log-based analysis was used to build the rock mechanical model (RMM). The RMM results were used to set up a hydraulic fracturing laboratory experiment. The test was done in the presence of three principal stresses to mimic the real field stress conditions. The test results include the pressure–time curve which was used to estimate the initiation and propagation pressure at that depth. The results were used to draw some practical conclusions related to hydraulic fracturing operation in the field.     

Production rate analysis of multiple-fractured horizontal wells in shale gas reservoirs by a trilinear flow model

Most multiple-fractured horizontal wells experience long-term linear flow due to the ultralow permeability of shale gas reservoirs. Considering the existence of natural fractures caused by compression and shear stresses during the process of tectonic movement or the expansion of high-pressure gas, a shale gas reservoir can be more appropriately described by dual-porosity medium. Based on the assumption of slab dual-porosity, this paper uses the trilinear flow model to simulate the transient production behavior of multiple-fractured horizontal wells in shale gas reservoirs, which takes the desorption of adsorbed gas, Knudsen diffusion and gas slippage flow in the shale matrix into consideration. Production decline curves are plotted with the Stehfest numerical inversion algorithm, and sensitivity analysis is done to identify the most influential reservoir and hydraulic fracture parameters. It was found that the density and permeability of the natural fracture network are the most important parameters affecting the production dynamics of multiple-fractured horizontal wells in shale gas reservoirs. The higher the density and permeability of the natural fractures are, the shorter the time is required to exploit the same amount of reserve, which means a faster investment payoff period. The analytical model presented in this paper can provide some insight into the reserve evaluation and production prediction for shale gas reservoirs.     

Borehole Stability in High-Temperature Formations

In oil and gas drilling or geothermal well drilling, the temperature difference between the drilling fluid and formation will lead to an apparent temperature change around the borehole, which will influence the stress state around the borehole and tend to cause borehole instability in high geothermal gradient formations. The thermal effect is usually not considered as a factor in most of the conventional borehole stability models. In this research, in order to solve the borehole instability in high-temperature formations, a calculation model of the temperature field around the borehole during drilling is established. The effects of drilling fluid circulation, drilling fluid density, and mud displacement on the temperature field are analyzed. Besides these effects, the effect of temperature change on the stress around the borehole is analyzed based on thermoelasticity theory. In addition, the relationships between temperature and strength of four types of rocks are respectively established based on experimental results, and thermal expansion coefficients are also tested. On this basis, a borehole stability model is established considering thermal effects and the effect of temperature change on borehole stability is also analyzed. The results show that the fracture pressure and collapse pressure will both increase as the temperature of borehole rises, and vice versa. The fracture pressure is more sensitive to temperature. Temperature has different effects on collapse pressures due to different lithological characters; however, the variation of fracture pressure is unrelated to lithology. The research results can provide a reference for the design of drilling fluid density in high-temperature wells.     

硅酸钾钻井液在页岩气水平井中的可行性研究

页岩气开发以水平井为主,由于页岩地层裂缝与层理发育,在长水平段钻井过程中极易发生垮塌等井眼稳定问题,同时还有携岩、摩阻等一系列问题;大量的研究工作表明,硅酸盐钻井液的抑制性是较为接近油基钻井液体系的,但其能否用于页岩气水平井的钻井过程中是值得探讨的。本文在对硅酸盐钻井液体系及页岩稳定分析的基础上,建立了一套硅酸钾钻井液体系,该钻井液体系除了具有良好的抑制性能以外,更具有较低的滤失量(高温高压滤失量＜6 mL),并且流变性易于控制,润滑性好,分析认为该体系能够满足页岩气水平井钻井的要求。     

离散裂隙网络对页岩气井产能影响的数值模拟

页岩作为典型的非常规储层,基质孔隙小,渗透率极低,水平井多级水力压裂为其商业开发的主要手段。准确模拟页岩气产能,应同时考虑水力裂隙和天然裂隙的渗流。基于离散裂隙模型和等效连续模型建立页岩气渗流数学模型,利用有限元分析方法进行数值求解,研究不同走向裂隙组对页岩气井产能的影响。研究认为,页岩基质为气体的生产提供了主要气源,天然裂隙作为渗流的主要通道,将气体输送到水力裂缝,进而到达井筒。模拟结果表征,离散裂隙的渗流特征对于页岩气井的产能有重要影响。根据页岩储层的天然裂隙走向,可以优化相应的水平井方位。对于二维离散裂隙网络模型,水平井沿着2个裂隙组夹角的平分线更有利于生产。      

Analysis of Pore Pressure and Stress Distribution around a Wellbore Drilled in Chemically Active Elastoplastic Formations

Drilling in low-permeable reactive shale formations with water-based drilling mud presents significant challenges, particularly in high-pressure and high-temperature environments. In previous studies, several models were proposed to describe the thermodynamic behaviour of shale. Most shale formations under high pressure are expected to undergo plastic deformation. An innovative algorithm including work hardening is proposed in the framework of thermo-chemo-poroelasticity to investigate the effect of plasticity on stresses around the wellbore. For this purpose a finite-element model of coupled thermo-chemo-poro-elastoplasticity is developed. The governing equations are based on the concept of thermodynamics of irreversible processes in discontinuous systems. In order to solve the plastic problem, a single-step backward Euler algorithm containing a yield surface-correction scheme is used to integrate the plastic stress–strain relation. An initial stress method is employed to solve the non-linearity of the plastic equation. In addition, super convergent patch recovery is used to accurately evaluate the time-dependent stress tensor from nodal displacement. The results of this study reveal that thermal and chemical osmosis can significantly affect the fluid flow in low-permeable shale formations. When the salinity of drilling mud is higher than that of pore fluid, fluid is pulled out of the formation by chemical osmotic back flow. Similar results are observed when the temperature of drilling mud is lower than that of the formation fluid. It is found that linear elastic approaches to wellbore stability analysis appear to overestimate the tangential stress around the wellbore and produce more conservative stresses compared to the results of field observation. Therefore, the drilling mud properties obtained from the elastoplastic wellbore stability in shales provide a safer mud weight window and reduce drilling cost.     

深部地质钻探钻遇弱面地层井孔围岩稳定分析

深部地层地质条件复杂,随钻探向纵深发展,钻遇弱面地层导致井孔围岩失稳将严重影响工程进程。本文总结分析具有弱面地层岩石物理力学特性,探讨强度各向异性孔壁围岩稳定模型的适用性;考虑流体向弱面渗透存在渗透各向异性和传热各向异性,发展了具有弱面地层井孔围岩稳定理论。研究发现,某些强度各向异性模型在特定情况下可能失去其适用性;在深部高温环境下忽略弱面地层渗透和热传的各向异性特征可能会导致井孔围岩压力、破坏区域以及坍塌压力产生较大误差。     

高压深井试气期间裸眼井壁稳定性分析

高压深气井裸眼试气期间,由于井内液柱压力较低,不能很好地支撑井壁,裸眼段可能发生井壁坍塌。在非均匀构造应力作用下井壁周围地应力分布的基础上,考虑井壁周围地层温度变化引起的热应力场和高压流体渗流引起的渗流应力场,并结合Mohr-Coulomb准则,可以确定防止高压深井试气期间井壁坍塌的井内当量流压,依此指导垫液、压井液的密度和高度,可确保测试工作顺利进行。      

Stability analysis of a horizontal coalbed methane well in the Rocky Mountain Front Ranges of southeast British Columbia, Canada

This study describes a wellbore stability analysis undertaken for a horizontal coalbed methane well in the Mist Mountain Formation, SE British Columbia, Canada. Three triaxial compression tests, with ultrasonic velocities, were conducted on 38-mm-diameter core plugs taken from a large, fresh block of Seam 7. Due to the small size of the tested samples, the laboratory-derived strength values were reduced to reflect the in-situ stress conditions considered relevant for a 156-mm-diameter horizontal well. The vertical stress gradient was calculated by integrating a bulk density log from an offset well. Horizontal maximum and minimum stresses were estimated from regional stress data, whereas formation pressure was estimated on the basis of a local hydrological study. The 2D elastoplastic STABView™ numerical modeling code was used to forecast horizontal wellbore stability. The sensitivity of the predicted yielded zone size was examined for varying linear and non-linear rock strength criteria, horizontal in-situ stresses, bottom-hole pressures, formation pressure, drilling depth, and wall-coating efficiency. Stability analysis was performed at bottom-hole pressures ranging from overbalanced to underbalanced in order to simulate the conditions expected during drilling and production. The effects of weak bedding planes and varying well trajectories were also investigated. When drilling at 650 m depth under underbalanced to slightly overbalanced conditions, a high probability of getting the drill pipe stuck was predicted. STABView™ showed that, if the 38-mm-diameter core plug strengths were used directly for forecasting purposes, the predicted yielded zone would be almost 20% overgauge when drilling at balanced conditions. When peak cohesion of coal was reduced by 50% to reflect the conditions expected along weak intervals of a horizontal wellbore, the predicted enlarged borehole was almost 85% overgauge under the same drilling conditions. The most unstable trajectory has N–S azimuth, which is perpendicular to the maximum horizontal stress in the study area. STABView™ indicates that a production liner should be inserted immediately following the drilling of the horizontal well in this structurally complex geologic setting since pressure drawdown and reservoir pressure depletion would undoubtedly lead to enlarged yielded zones and collapse of the wellbore over time.     

Summary of Numerical Models for Predicting Productivity of Shale Gas Horizontal Wells

Shale gas production has gradually achieved high and stable output, which makes it possible to make up for the shortage of oil and gas energy as an alternative energy source. Shale reservoir is compact, with well-developed nano-pore, and has the characteristics of adsorption and desorption, diffusion and slippage. At the same time, there are a large number of natural cracks, bedding and foliation. Hydraulic fractures expand irregularly after volume fracturing in horizontal wells. The whole system has multi-field coupling and cross-scale flow effects. Productivity prediction of shale gas is difficult and uncertain, which restricts the efficient development and evaluation of shale reservoirs. In this paper, the development status of productivity numerical models for shale gas horizontal wells is reviewed in consideration of the multi-scale transport characteristics of shale gas. These models include dual media capacity models, multiple media capacity models, and complex seam productivity models. It is considered that the dual medium and multi-media productivity models weaken the large permeable flow area and channel provided by the complex seam network system after shale reservoir lamination, and cannot comprehensively characterize the full-scale coupled transport characteristics of shale gas. The numerical model for productivity prediction of shale gas horizontal wells based on complex fracture network provides a multi-scale flow embedded fracture network system, which solves the problem of systematic flow without losing the ability to accurately characterize each scale flow. It is necessary to obtain the complex fracture network morphological characterization which conforms to reservoir geological characteristics, rock mechanical behavior and fluid-solid coupling mechanism. Fracture network characterization is the key to the productivity prediction of shale gas horizontal wells.     

桂北地区罗地1井钻探施工实践

页岩具有较强的水敏性,在页岩气勘查钻进施工中,井内易发生坍塌、剥落造成超径或缩径等井壁失稳现象。罗地1井采用金刚石绳索取心工艺进行钻进,完井井深1501.06 m,岩心采取率、井斜等各项指标均符合地质设计要求。本文主要从罗地1井的钻井设备、井身结构、施工难点等方面进行总结,可为今后页岩气调查井的施工提供参考。     

Wellbore breakouts of the main borehole of Chinese Continental Scientific Drilling (CCSD) and determination of the present tectonic stress state

The Sulu-Dabie high-pressure (HP)-ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphic belt as the product of subduction-collision between the northern China plate and Yangtze plate underwent a process of formation and evolution from deep subduction→exhumation→extension→slow uplift. The study of its modern tectonic stress field has great significance for a complete understanding of the process of formation and evolution of the HP-UHP metamorphic belt, especially the exhumation and uplift of the belt. Wellbore breakouts are the most visual tectonic phenomenon which can characterize the modern stress action in the main borehole of Chinese Continental Scientific Drilling (CCSD). Ultrasonic borehole televiewer reflection wave data show that wellbore breakouts began to occur at 1216 m depth of the main borehole. A total of 143 borehole televiewer images were collected from 1216 to 5118 m depth (hole completion depth). After data processing and statistics, the average azimuth of the long dimension of the wellbore breakout obtained was 319.5° ± 3.5°, indicating that the average azimuth of the maximum horizontal principal stress causing wellbore breakout initiation was 49.5° ± 3.5°. The maximum and minimum horizontal principal stress values at 52 depths in the interval of 1269 to 5047 m were estimated using the elements of wellbore shapes (wellbore depth and width), combined with the cohesive strength and internal frictional angle of the rock obtained by rock mechanical tests on samples, and the static load stresses at corresponding depths were calculated according to the rock density logging data. The results indicate that: the maximum and minimum horizontal principal stresses are 41.4 and 25.3 MPa at 1269 m depth respectively and 164.7 and 122 MPa at 5047 m depth respectively; the maximum vertical stress is 141.3 MPa at 5047 m depth with a density of 2.8 g/cm³; the in-situ stresses increase nearly linearly with depth. The magnitudes and directions of the three principal stresses reflect that the regional stress field around the CCSD main borehole is mainly in a strike-slip state, which is consistent with the basic features of the regional stress field determined using other methods.     

基于贝叶斯正则化改进BP神经网络的页岩气有机碳含量预测模型

页岩气总有机碳(TOC)含量是评价岩性气藏的关键指标,受复杂地质及岩芯采集等多种因素的影响,常规室内测试分析获得的TOC含量的数据有限且结果有失准确。为合理准确预测页岩气TOC含量,本文首先通过对页岩气储层TOC含量测井资料综合分析选取8条测井曲线,并结合主成分分析法(Principal Component Analysis,PCA)提取四个主成分;其次基于贝叶斯正则化(Bayesian Regularization)改进的BP神经网络方法建立页岩气TOC含量预测的BR-BP模型;最后利用该模型对研究区A区页岩气TOC含量进行预测,并与常规的LM-BP神经网络模型的预测结果进行对比。结果表明：BR-BP模型有较强的非线性拟合能力,能够真实地反映出页岩气TOC含量与各测井参数之间的非线性关系,其模型预测结果与实际值基本吻合,与常规的LM-BP神经网络模型相比,其数据敏感性增强,预测精度有所提高,该研究方法具有一定的理论意义和参考价值,为我国TOC含量预测提供了一种新的技术方法和手段。