基于砂箱物理模拟的断层封闭有效性评价新方法

泥岩涂抹的连续性影响油气跨断层运移,在相似岩性、相似应力条件下,泥岩厚度和断距长度是影响泥岩涂抹连续性的主要因素。本文结合岩芯观察,借助三维定量物理模拟实验对泥岩涂抹的连续有效性进行了研究。结果表明：① 泥岩有效涂抹是决定断层封闭性的必要条件,涂抹连续厚度是封闭性评价的重要参数;② 受剪切作用在断层带中形成连续的泥岩涂抹油气封堵层,其涂抹形成过程分为3个阶段即泥岩层未错断阶段、泥岩剪切涂抹层形成阶段和涂抹层连续性破坏阶段,其中前2个阶段是泥岩有效涂抹阶段,在第3个阶段出现泥岩涂抹连续性破坏从而导致封堵油气失效;③ 基于非连续性等比例模型提出了新的断层封闭性评价参数——泥岩连续涂抹最小厚度,建立了泥岩失去涂抹连续性的非等比例评价理论和数学模型,形成了基于断裂带泥岩连续涂抹断层封闭性评价参数SGRnew新算法。结果表明,考虑了泥岩涂抹有效性而识别的断块圈闭可靠程度高,目标优选更准确,在研究区块圈闭评价应用效果好。     

基于砂箱物理模拟的断层封闭有效性评价新方法

泥岩涂抹的连续性影响油气跨断层运移,在相似岩性、相似应力条件下,泥岩厚度和断距长度是影响泥岩涂抹连续性的主要因素.本文结合岩芯观察,借助三维定量物理模拟实验对泥岩涂抹的连续有效性进行了研究.结果表明:①泥岩有效涂抹是决定断层封闭性的必要条件,涂抹连续厚度是封闭性评价的重要参数;②受剪切作用在断层带中形成连续的泥岩涂抹油...     

张性断裂带内部结构特征及油气运移和保存研究

断裂带是一个宽度、长度和高度均与断距呈正比关系的三维地质体,具有典型的二分结构：即断层核和破碎带。断层核由多种类型的断层岩和后期胶结物组成,具有分选差,粘土含量高,颗粒粒径小等特征,表现为具有比围岩更低的孔渗性。破碎带同围岩相比发育大量的裂缝,裂缝的密度随着离断层核距离的增大而逐渐减小,孔渗性较高。断层岩类型取决于断移地层的岩性、成岩程度和断裂变形时期。对于同生断层而言,泥岩和不纯净的砂岩主要发生泥岩涂抹作用;纯净砂岩发生解聚作用,形成颗粒重排的变形带。中成岩阶段发生断裂变形,泥岩发生泥岩涂抹作用,不纯净的砂岩发生碎裂作用和层状硅酸盐涂抹作用,形成碎裂岩和层状硅酸盐 框架断层岩;纯净砂岩主要发生碎裂作用,形成碎裂岩。晚成岩阶段发生断裂变形,碎裂作用成为主要的变形机制,泥岩破碎形成大量断层泥,不纯净的砂岩和纯净的砂岩均形成碎裂岩,其中纯净砂岩形成的碎裂岩由于石英的压溶胶结变得更致密。因此不同成岩阶段、不同岩性形成的断层岩类型不同,泥岩涂抹的排替压力高于层状硅酸盐 框架断层岩和碎裂岩,即使都是碎裂岩,其渗透率相差7个数量级。从断裂带结构看油气运移和保存,断层垂向封闭主要靠剪切型泥岩涂抹的连续性,侧向封闭能力取决于断层岩物性,物性很高的碎裂岩自身封闭能力很差,依靠两盘岩性对接封闭油气,最小断距决定油水界面位置。物性很低的断层岩一般能封住一定高度的油气柱,其是断裂带中泥质含量的函数。断层在储盖层段变形机制差异,决定了断裂输导与封闭油气的耦合,即破碎带双向输导充注,盖层段剪切型泥岩涂抹顶部封闭,断层核遮挡成藏。     

珠江口盆地恩平凹陷断层封闭性评价

为了综合评价断层的封闭性,以珠江口盆地恩平凹陷新近系为例,通过实钻断层圈闭油藏的封堵规律研究,标定断裂带泥质含量、泥岩涂抹系数和断面正压力临界值,建立了适合勘探实践的断层封闭性评价的新方法。结果表明：断层油藏与断层涂抹量呈现出泥岩涂抹因子随深度逐渐递增的趋势;断裂带泥质含量与泥岩发育情况是断层能够封堵的先决条件,断层的封闭性受构造图精度、构造调整和控圈断裂断层活动影响。应用该方法能有效评价未钻断层圈闭油气保存条件,有助于提高断层圈闭的勘探成功率,可推广至具有相似构造成因和沉积背景的勘探新区进行断层封闭性分析,是勘探早期评价断层封闭性有效的方法。     

Clay smear: Review of mechanisms and applications

Clay smear is a collection of fault processes and resulting fault structures that form when normal faults deform layered sedimentary sections. These elusive structures have attracted deep interest from researchers interested in subsurface fluid flow, particularly in the oil and gas industry. In the four decades since the association between clay-smear structures and oil and gas accumulations was introduced, there has been extensive research into the fault processes that create clay smear and the resulting effects of that clay smear on fluid flow. We undertake a critical review of the literature associated with outcrop studies, laboratory and numerical modeling, and subsurface field studies of clay smear and propose a comprehensive summary that encompasses all of these elements. Important fault processes that contribute to clay smear are defined in the context of the ratio of rock strength and in situ effective stresses, the geometric evolution of fault systems, and the composition of the faulted section. We find that although there has been progress in all avenues pursued, progress has been uneven, and the processes that disrupt clay smears are mostly overlooked. We highlight those research areas that we think will yield the greatest benefit and suggest that taking these emerging results within a more process-based framework presented here will lead to a new generation of clay smear models.     

胜利油田东营凹陷中央隆起带断层封闭模式研究

东营凹陷中央隆起带断裂系统复杂,断层封闭性直接控制油气藏形盛分布及油气藏规模,封闭性强的断层附近可形成大规模油气藏,封闭性差的断层附近油气藏规模小,甚至无油气藏形成.以岩性配置封闭模式、主应力封闭模式和泥岩沾污带封闭模式3种最主要的封闭模式为例建立了东营凹陷中央隆起带断层封闭模式.定量分析评价了东营凹陷中央隆起带断层封闭性,认为东营凹陷中央隆起带封闭性断层的最佳断面正应力为40~50 MPa,封闭性断层的泥岩沾污因子常小于2.6.针对某一具体断层判断其是否具有封闭性需多方面综合分析,不可简单地进行单因素分析.      

Fault zone architecture and fluid flow in interlayered basaltic volcaniclastic-crystalline sequences

Faults in continental flood basalt sequences potentially control subsurface fluid flow. We present field and microstructural observations from fault zones cutting interlayered basaltic volcaniclastic-crystalline sequences within the North Atlantic Igneous Province. Fractures likely initiate within lava units, before linking through the volcaniclastic units. Through-going faults show refraction, with subvertical faults in the lavas joined to variably inclined faults in the volcaniclastic layers. At >1.0 m displacement, volcaniclastic units are progressively dragged into the fault plane forming a smear. Volcaniclastic sandstones deform by flow. Claystones fracture, and are incorporated into smears as breccia. Experimentally measured host and fault rock sample permeabilities, at aquifer to reservoir pressures (i.e., 10–90 MPa; ∼0.3–3.0 km depth) show fault rocks from low displacement faults have relatively low permeability (10⁻¹⁷–10⁻²⁰ m²); fault rocks from higher displacement structures have comparatively high permeability (10⁻¹⁵–10⁻¹⁷ m²). Our observations suggest that permeability is determined by the opposing influences of clay mineralization, which decreases permeability, versus the development of interconnected, higher permeability zeolite veins. Brecciation and the formation of zeolite vein networks within claystone smears results in high permeability. Zeolite veins in volcaniclastic units form poorly-connected, spaced sets, parallel to the slip plane, hence sequence permeability remains low.     

大庆油田朝长地区扶余油层断层封闭性及其演化

使用Allan图法、泥岩涂抹因子法和断层泥比率法对大庆油田朝长地区扶余油层8条断层的侧向封闭性进行了研究,使用断面正压力结合泥岩塑性变形强度极限的方法对其垂向封闭性进行了研究,分别确定各断层在嫩江期末、明水期末和现今3个时期的侧向封闭性和垂向封闭性。嫩江期末除6号断层外其他断层均开启,便于青山口组烃源岩排出油气的充注,6号断层附近区域因其封闭而缺乏油源;明水期末断层开始封闭;到现今时期,除5号断层外其他断层均封闭,能够对已形成油藏提供很好的阻挡。5号断层3个时期对油气都缺乏有效阻挡,基本只起到了通道的作用。     

断层内部结构及其对封闭性的影响

先前的研究多考虑断层封堵和开启的2种极端状态,近来的研究认为,在多数情况下断层处于2种之间的状态,只有在静止期具有封闭能力的断层,才有可能对油气起封堵作用。分析断层对流体运移的影响,需要分析断层在演化过程中的内部结构特征。断层可以划分出破碎带、诱导裂缝带和围岩3部分,断层岩和伴生裂缝构成破碎带的主体部分。常见的断层岩包括断层角砾岩、断层泥和部分碎裂岩,它们充填在断层裂缝空间中,断层内部结构受断层形成时的构造应力性质、断层活动强度和围岩岩性因素的控制。从动态角度看,随着断距增加,断层活动伴随着裂缝的发育和岩石的破碎混杂,可用泥质源岩层厚度和断距的比值来划分不同的发育阶段。断层活动期为油气运移通道,在静止时表现出差异性的封闭,通常用断层渗透率和排替压力2个参数来定量评价断层的封闭程度。断层岩渗透率主要受断距、泥质含量、埋深等因素的控制;断层排替压力的预测方法有2种:一种是从断层岩成岩角度分析的"等效埋深法",另一种是分析实测排替压力与主控地质因素的"拟合法"。通过简化的断层模型,建立了渗透率、排替压力与主控因素的预测关系。和储层类似,流体在断层中的运移遵循多孔介质的渗流特征。利用断层两侧的流体压力和油气柱高度并不能直接评价封闭性能,还必须考虑油气充注史和流体压力变化历史。     

关于地下断层封闭性的讨论——以东营凹陷为例

本文回顾并分析了前人进行断层封闭性评价的一些基本思路,并根据孔隙压力和有效应力原理提出了断层封闭性评价的新见解,断面的力学性质取决于该断面上有效直应力和剪应力的大小和方向;有效直应力为压性,则断面为封闭的,有效直应力的性质受控于有效地应力,而有效地应力的大小与流体压力密切相关;以前对断层封闭性的评价中所考虑的影响因素是不全面的,完全忽略了流体压力对断层封闭性的影响;断层封闭性不但是变化的,而且其变化是一种瞬时的、多次所复的过程;在探埋藏条件下,断层一般是封闭的。自然界中至少存在着两种引起地层压力快速上升并导致深部断层开启的机制：一是地震触发高压致裂;二是深部流体注入引最的连锁压裂。     

山东灵山岛滑塌体内部沉积及构造特征研究

青岛市灵山岛修船厂剖面下白垩统地层中发育良好的滑塌变形体。野外观察可见滑塌体岩性单元主要由厚层砂岩及砂页岩互层组成,其中厚层砂岩根据其沉积构造及成因机制可分为砂质碎屑流沉积及浊流沉积两类;砂页岩互层段砂岩层可见底模构造及粒序层理,为静水环境下远端浊流沉积。滑塌体内部构造主要可分为软褶皱变形、同生断层、透镜状砂质团块三种类型。其中,软褶皱变形根据岩性可分为砂岩软褶皱、砂页岩互层软褶皱及页岩软褶皱,随着变形强度增加,软褶皱枢纽逐渐平行于滑移方向,形成曲脊软褶皱或软鞘褶皱(soft sheath folds);同生断层出现在砂岩层中,根据力学性质分为正断层及逆断层,正断层为剪切拉伸所致,逆断层为软褶皱逆冲所致;透镜状砂质团块包括同沉积布丁构造和同沉积断块。根据滑塌体内部滑移面识别出三期滑塌,完整的滑塌体由底部拆离滑移面、下部厚层砂体、中部砂页岩互层及上部砂页岩互层未变形体组成,其组成特征及各部分接触关系反映了滑塌体中下部沿底部拆离滑移面发生滑塌变形,且于活动末期在相对静水条件下被上部砂页岩互层覆盖这一形成过程。根据滑塌体内部组成特征的有序性、相似性及滑塌体内部沉积构造特征,推测其触发机制可能为沉积物快速沉积所引发的重力滑塌成因。     

高孔砂岩断层内部微观结构及渗透性变化规律物理模拟

在油气勘探过程中,对于小位移断层分隔油水封闭能力的控制因素研究尚浅,野外也难以获得不同变形过程的断层带结构及其渗透性变化规律.因此,以高孔隙度纯净砂岩人造岩心为研究对象,采用自主研发的“高压~低速环形剪切装置”开展实验,实验后样品取心分别进行覆压孔渗测试、纳米CT扫描、铸体薄片分析等分析测试.以有效正应力和断层位移为实验变量开展了多组环剪实验,其研究结果表明:宏观上断层面上可观察到明显擦痕与粉末状碎裂岩,微观上确定了断层带内碎裂作用导致的颗粒粒度降低与颗粒的定向排列是孔渗降低的主要原因,断层带渗透率小于10 mD,较母岩降低2~3个数量级.随着断层有效正应力或断层滑动位移增加,断层带碎裂程度增大且粒径和孔径减小,断层带厚度增大,孔隙度和渗透率逐渐减小.这一结果可为小位移断层侧向封闭能力与油气勘探领域的研究奠定理论基础.      

The structure of the Tuapse shear zone according to the field tectonophysical data

The results of field structural studies of the Tuapse shear zone in the Northwest Caucasus are presented. This zone is characterized by shear displacements of various scales with a dominant horizontal shear, viz., a geodynamic type of the stress state, which leads to the formation of faults with mostly lateral displacement of wings, i.e., along the strike of the fault surface. The quantitative characteristics of the local stress conditions in the shear zone (the positions of principal axes and the Lode–Nadai coefficient) are determined on the basis of cataclastic analysis and geological indicators of the paleostresses. The differences between these characteristics are considered for the large tectonic zones. Significant spatial (areal) variations in orientations of the axes of major normal stresses in the shear zone and their local weak gentle variations are evidence of a consistent general stress direction during the formation of faults during the Late Eocene–Miocene deformation epoch.     

松辽盆地葡西地区葡萄花油层断层垂向封闭性研究

在对松辽盆地葡萄花油层断层特征及构造发育史研究的基础上,计算了控制葡西地区断层垂向封闭性的断层带泥质含量和断面压力参数,评价了区内7条主要断层在姚家组沉积末、嫩二段沉积末、嫩三段沉积末以及现今4个时期对葡萄花油层的垂向封闭性,并简要地探讨了断层封闭性与油气成藏之间的关系。研究结果表明:在姚家组沉积末,断层垂向呈开启状态;在嫩二段沉积末,4号和5号断层呈开启状态,其余断层呈封闭状态;在嫩三段沉积末至现今,断层垂向均呈封闭状态。整体而言,葡西地区北北西向断层封闭性好,有利于封闭油气在葡萄花油层成藏;北北东向断层持续活动时间较长,是青山口组源岩油气的运移通道。     

Processes of normal fault evolution in a siliciclastic sequence: a case study from Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia

Detailed field observations of normal faults formed at shallow depth in a deltaic sand–clay sequence near Miri, Sarawak are used to study the main structural elements during the early stages of fault development. We studied over 450 segmented faults, many of which contain clay smear, in an excellent outcrop exposing a collapsed crest structure.In agreement with previous studies we find that important elements of fault zone evolution are: (i) clay smear, (ii) telescoping on parallel strands, and (iii) preferred deformation of fault-bounded lenses. We model the consequences of telescoping on parallel strands and conclude that the reliability of juxtaposition diagrams can decrease dramatically in the presence of undetected multiple fault strands. The across fault connectivity can either increase or decrease depending on small variations in many of the input parameters.All the faults studied have a continuous clay smear over the interval studied, except for the places where a sand bed has an offset smaller than its thickness, and therefore has not moved past clay. Although on average the clay content observed correlates well with the average clay content of the faulted section, there are large variations in clay content controlled by local complexity in deformation. Understanding of this local complexity is a prerequisite for further improvement of clay smear in the subsurface.     

准噶尔盆地莫索湾地区断层控油作用

莫索湾地区三叠系以上地层整体近单斜形态,圈闭大都与断层相关,并且断层在纵向上可划分为深、浅2套断层系统.深部断裂发育在石炭系至二叠系中,为逆断层;浅部断裂发育在侏罗系中,为张性和张扭性断层.侏罗纪晚期,浅部断裂开始发育,并断至地表,导致油气散失.白垩纪至第三纪,随上覆地层增厚,断层封闭性增强.通过断面两侧岩性配置、泥岩涂抹因子等分析,莫北凸起断层封闭性好于莫索湾凸起,且J₁s₂1砂层组的泥岩涂抹效应要好于J₁s₂2砂层组.油气沿断层垂向运移过程中,将向两侧储层分流,分流系数与储层倾角、厚度、渗透率等有关.莫索湾地区沿断层运移的油气将优先进入厚度大、渗透率高的J₁s₂2储层,厚度小、渗透率低的J₁s₂1储层有利于捕获后期高成熟的油或气.      

准噶尔盆地车拐地区红车断裂带封闭性评价

本次研究采用断面正应力大小、泥岩削刮比(SGR)、断裂带充填物泥质含量(Rm)和断面紧闭指数等定量参数,对车拐地区红车断裂封闭性进行了详细评价。结果显示泥岩削刮比(SGR)均值为0.6,断裂带充填物泥质含量(Rm)均值为0.51,泥质充填程度较高,断面正应力大小变化不大,为69.54~73.11MPa,整体较大,紧闭指数为1.28~8.25,均值为3.98。从而认为准噶尔盆地车拐地区红车断裂带二叠系及三叠系封闭性较好,侏罗系封闭性差。红车断裂带中部、北部断层封闭性较好,而发育于浅部乌尔禾组、三工河组内的小断层在现今及油气成藏期的封闭性也普遍较好。     

Deformation of two welded elastic half-spaces due to a long inclined tensile fault

The calculation of the deformation caused by shear and tensile faults is necessary for the investigation of seismic and volcanic sources. The solution of the two-dimensional problem of a long inclined shear fault in two welded half-spaces is well known. The purpose of this note is to present the corresponding solution for a tensile fault. Closed-form analytical expressions for the Airy stress function for a tensile line source in two welded half-spaces are first obtained. These expressions are then integrated analytically to derive the Airy stress function for a long tensile fault of arbitrary dip and finite width. Closed-form analytical expressions for the displacements and stresses follow immediately from the Airy stress function. These expressions are suitable for computing the displacement and stress fields around a long inclined tensile fault near an internal boundary.     

Geometry and architecture of faults in a syn-rift normal fault array: The Nukhul half-graben, Suez rift, Egypt

The geometry and architecture of a well exposed syn-rift normal fault array in the Suez rift is examined. At pre-rift level, the Nukhul fault consists of a single zone of intense deformation up to 10 m wide, with a significant monocline in the hanging wall and much more limited folding in the footwall. At syn-rift level, the fault zone is characterised by a single discrete fault zone less than 2 m wide, with damage zone faults up to approximately 200 m into the hanging wall, and with no significant monocline developed. The evolution of the fault from a buried structure with associated fault-propagation folding, to a surface-breaking structure with associated surface faulting, has led to enhanced bedding-parallel slip at lower levels that is absent at higher levels. Strain is enhanced at breached relay ramps and bends inherited from pre-existing structures that were reactivated during rifting. Damage zone faults observed within the pre-rift show ramp-flat geometries associated with contrast in competency of the layers cut and commonly contain zones of scaly shale or clay smear. Damage zone faults within the syn-rift are commonly very straight, and may be discrete fault planes with no visible fault rock at the scale of observation, or contain relatively thin and simple zones of scaly shale or gouge. The geometric and architectural evolution of the fault array is interpreted to be the result of (i) the evolution from distributed trishear deformation during upward propagation of buried fault tips to surface faulting after faults breach the surface; (ii) differences in deformation response between lithified pre-rift units that display high competence contrasts during deformation, and unlithified syn-rift units that display low competence contrasts during deformation, and; (iii) the history of segmentation, growth and linkage of the faults that make up the fault array. This has important implications for fluid flow in fault zones.     

古龙油田葡萄花油层断层封闭性分析

古龙油田断层极为发育,断层的封闭性对研究区油气的运聚起着重要的控制作用,研究断层封闭性有利于预测油气成藏的有利部位。从断层类型、几何特征和埋深对研究区断层封闭性开展地质定性分析,重点从断层两盘岩性对置、泥岩涂抹和应力对断层封闭性进行了定量分析,研究典型断层的封闭演化史。结果表明,古龙油田葡萄花油层一级断层和三级断层封闭性较好,二级断层封闭性一般;平面上鼻状构造断层封闭性好于向斜断层封闭性,其中龙南鼻状构造断层封闭性最好。