A review on developments in the electrical structure of craton lithosphere

Cratons have a long history of evolution. In this paper, applications of the magnetotelluric method used in the study of craton lithosphere over the past 30 years were reviewed, examining case studies of cratons in North America, South America, Asia, Australia, and Africa. The nuclei of the Archean cratons, for example the Kalahari Craton and Rae Craton, are usually characterized by thick and highly resistive lithospheric roots. During or after the formation of the cratons, tectonothermal events, such as collision, mantle plume, and asthenosphere upwelling led to the formation of high-conductivity zones in the craton lithosphere, which could be attributed to the increased hydrogen content (of nominally anhydrous minerals), higher iron content, and formation of graphite films or sulfides along the grain boundary of minerals. These conductive zones are characterized by resistivity discontinuities in craton lithosphere. In particular, the conductive zones include (1) large-scale lithospheric mantle conductors beneath the Slave Craton, Gawler Craton, and central part of North China Craton(Trans-North China Orogen); (2) near-vertical high-conductivity zone associated with the fossil subduction zone beneath the Dharwar Craton and Slave Craton; and (3) regional lateral electrical discontinuities, such as a conductive anomaly under the Bushveld Complex of the Kaapvaal Craton. The eMoho refers to the electrical discontinuity in the crust-mantle boundary. In existing research, this has been detected under the condition of extremely high lithospheric resistivity with only a slight decrease in the lower crust, and in the case of a very thin conductive lower crust or the lack thereof. In the resistivity model, the unique “mushroom-like” lower crust-lithosphere mantle conductor and very thin lower crust layer of the North China Craton may represent lithosphere destruction and/or thinning. We also find that some of the cratons are still not well understood. Therefore, extensive three-dimensional inversion and joint interpretation of geochemical, geophysical, and geologic data are necessary to understand the tectonic evolutionary history of craton lithosphere.

     

Methodological progress in trace amounts of structural water in nominally anhydrous minerals

In the deep Earth, hydrogen mainly occurs as structural hydroxyl and molecular water in minerals and melts, constituting mobile and immobile aqueous components. Hydrous minerals contain hydrogen which occupies a specific structural position and constitutes an indispensable component of chemical formulae. On the other hand, nominally anhydrous minerals do not contain hydrogen in their chemical formulae, but can host trace amounts of water in structural position and lattice defect. The molecular water may occur in the lattice defect as fluid/melt inclusions in minerals. Even though the water content of nominally anhydrous minerals is very limited generally in the order of ppm (parts per million), they may play a significant role in influencing the physicochemical properties of mineral and rock systems. With the continuous improvement of modern instrumentations, the analytical methodology exhibits trends for higher spatial resolution, lower detection limit and integral multiple methods on the water amount and its isotopic ratio. Among these methods, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry remains the most widely used, while secondary ion mass spectrometry, continuous flow mass spectrometry, elastic recoil detection analysis and Raman spectrometry are promising. This paper provides a brief review on the methodological progress and their applications to the analysis of structural water in nominally anhydrous minerals.     

Origin of High Electrical Conductivity in the Lower Continental Crust: A Review

Electromagnetic measurements have demonstrated that the lower continental crust has remarkable electrical anomalies of high conductivity and electrical anisotropy on a global scale (probably with some local exceptions), but their origin is a long-standing and controversial problem. Typical electrical properties of the lower continental crust include: (1) the electrical conductivity is usually 10⁻⁴ to 10⁻¹ S/m; (2) the overlying shallow crust and underlying upper mantle are in most cases less conductive; (3) the electrical conductivity is statistically much higher in Phanerozoic than in Precambrian areas; (4) horizontal anisotropy has been resolved in many areas; and (5) in some regions there appear to be correlations between high electrical conductivity and other physical properties such as seismic reflections. The explanation based on conduction by interconnected, highly conductive phases such as fluids, melts, or graphite films in grain boundary zones has various problems in accounting for geophysically resolved electrical conductivity and other chemical and physical properties of the lower crust. The lower continental crust is dominated by mafic granulites (in particular beneath stable regions), with nominally anhydrous clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, and plagioclase as the main assemblages, and the prevailing temperatures are mostly 700–1,000°C as estimated from xenolith data, surface heat flow, and seismic imaging. Pyroxenes have significantly higher Fe content in the lower crust than in the upper mantle (peridotites), and plagioclase has higher Na content in the lower crust than in the shallow crust (granites). Minerals in the lower continental crust generally contain trace amounts of water as H-related point defects, from less than 100 to more than 1,000 ppm H₂O (by weight), with concentrations usually higher than those in the upper mantle. Observations of xenolith granulites captured by volcano-related eruptions indicate that the lower continental crust is characterized by alternating pyroxene-rich and plagioclase-rich layers. Experimental studies on typical lower crustal minerals have shown that their electrical conductivity can be significantly enhanced by the higher contents of Fe (for pyroxenes), Na (for plagioclase), and water (for all minerals) at thermodynamic conditions corresponding to the lower continental crust, e.g., to levels comparable to those measured by geophysical field surveys. Preferred orientation of hydrous plagioclase, e.g., due to ductile flow in the deep crust, and alternating mineral fabrics of pyroxene-rich and plagioclase-rich layers can lead to substantial anisotropy of electrical conductivity. Electrical conductivity properties in many regions of the lower continental crust, especially beneath stable areas, can mostly be accounted for by solid-state conduction due to the major constituents; other special, additional conduction mechanisms due to grain boundary phases are not strictly necessary.     

Laboratory Electrical Conductivity Measurement of Mantle Minerals

Electrical conductivity structures of the Earth’s mantle estimated from the magnetotelluric and geomagnetic deep sounding methods generally show increase of conductivity from 10⁻⁴–10⁻² to 10⁰ S/m with increasing depth to the top of the lower mantle. Although conductivity does not vary significantly in the lower mantle, the possible existence of a highly conductive layer has been proposed at the base of the lower mantle from geophysical modeling. The electrical properties of mantle rocks are controlled by thermodynamic parameters such as pressure, temperature and chemistry of the main constituent minerals. Laboratory electrical conductivity measurements of mantle minerals have been conducted under high pressure and high temperature conditions using solid medium high-pressure apparatus. To distinguish several charge transport mechanisms in mantle minerals, it is necessary to measure the electrical conductivity in a wider temperature range. Although the correspondence of data has not been yet established between each laboratory, an outline tendency of electrical conductivity of the mantle minerals is almost the same. Most of mineral phases forming the Earth’s mantle exhibit semiconductive behavior. Dominant conduction mechanism is small polaron conduction (electron hole hopping between ferrous and ferric iron), if these minerals contain iron. The phase transition olivine to high-pressure phases enhances the conductivity due to structural changes. As a result, electrical conductivity increases in order of olivine, wadsleyite and ringwoodite along the adiabat geotherm. The phase transition to post-spinel at the 660 km discontinuity further can enhance the conductivity. In the lower mantle, the conductivity once might decrease in the middle of the lower mantle due to the iron spin transition and then abruptly increase at the condition of the D″ layer. The impurities in the mantle minerals strongly control the formation, number and mobility of charge carriers. Hydrogen in nominally anhydrous minerals such as olivine and high-pressure polymorphs can enhance the conductivity by the proton conduction. However, proton conduction has lower activation enthalpy compared with small polaron conduction, a contribution of proton conduction becomes smaller at high temperatures, corresponding to the mantle condition. Rather high iron content in mantle minerals largely enhances the conductivity of the mantle. This review focuses on a compilation of fairly new advances in experimental laboratory work together with their explanation.     

华南地区岩石圈电性特征及其地球动力学意义

岩石圈-软流圈界面（The Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary,LAB）是地球内部主要界面之一.大地电磁测深（Magnetotelluric,MT）是研究地球壳幔电性结构最有效的方法,利用长周期大地电磁测深数据可以较好地探测LAB.在SinoProbe-01-03课题的资助下,首次获得了华南地区4°×4°网度的高质量大地电磁测深数据.利用一维奥卡姆（Occam）算法反演了MT阻抗的反对角线元素所计算出的平均视电阻率.根据一维地电结构可以将华南地区岩石圈划分为五种类型：以湖南邵阳和贵州施秉为代表的克拉通型,以四川达州和彭州及湖北荆门为代表的构造边界型,以浙江湖州和广东云浮为代表的岩石圈中等改造型,以江西赣州、广东揭阳及福建霞浦为代表的岩石圈强烈改造型,以湖北英山为代表的造山带型.除湖南邵阳、贵州施秉及广东揭阳外,华南地区岩石圈厚度为60~145 km.本文研究表明华南地区岩石圈显示出南北两侧上抬、中部下凹、东部受不均匀改造的趋势,这一结果与之前发表的文献所揭示的华南地区岩石圈东薄西厚的典型特征是不同的.研究结果反映华南地区岩石圈稳定性较好,晚中生代以来的构造伸展作用对岩石圈的改造程度有限,可能主要以不同形式的软流圈底辟为主.     

Making and Breaking of a Continent: Following the Scent of Geodynamic Imprints on the African Continent Using Electromagnetics

The African continent inherits a long history of continental accretion and breakup. The stage of “making” a continent goes back to the Archean, when the first continental masses formed cratons which mostly remained stable ever since. Subsequent collision of weaker continental masses was followed by several extension and compression episodes that resulted in the formation of super-continents. After the assemblage of Gondwana, a period of predominantly “breaking” , i.e., the breakup of super-continents, took over. The modern-day African continent exhibits different types of margins; continental rifting occurs side by side with recent collision. Since the late 1960s, magnetotelluric (MT) experiments have played an important role in studies of the electrical conductivity structure of Africa. The early results significantly shaped the MT community’s understanding of continental-scale conductivity belts and basic characteristics of cratons and mobile belts on both crustal and lithospheric mantle scales for some decades. Modern MT studies in Africa have generally supported earlier results with high resistivities observed on cratons and low resistivities observed across mobile belts. Advances in instrumentation, data processing and interpretation resulted in higher-resolution images of the lithosphere, which in consequence induce an improved understanding of tectonic processes and geological prerequisites for the occurrence of natural resources. The high electrical conductivity of mobile belts and their relation to reactivated fault and detachment zones were often interpreted to characterize mobile belts as tectonic weak zones, which can accommodate stress and constitute zones along which continents can break. Recent breaking of the African continent can be studied on land across the East African rift; however, the lack of amphibian MT experiments across today’s margins does not allow for good resolution of remnants of continental breakup processes. Naturally, the regions and the focus of the MT studies in Africa are diverse, but they all contribute to the story of making and breaking a continent.     

Are some of the deep crustal conductive features found in SW Iberia caused by graphite?

Recent results obtained from two-dimensional inversion of magnetotelluric (MT) data acquired in SW Iberia reveal high-conductive features at the middle-lower levels of the crust. The top of these anomalous structures correlates very well with the depth (10-13 km) of an important seismic interface that has been interpreted as a regional detachment horizon. Very shallow and relatively narrow conductors in the Ossa Morena Zone appear to correspond to small-scale fluid-deposited graphite systems in the preorogenic metasedimentary sequences. Some of the midcrustal conductors can be ascribed to graphite-bearing thrust zones, the formation of graphite with variable crystallinity being a consequence of Variscan shearing processes. Deep-seated conductors are tentatively interpreted as a result of relatively continuous, highly crystalline grain-boundary graphite films presumably preserved in basement, granulite(?) rocks. Assuming that graphite occurs as interconnected films, calculations indicate that a fraction of 0.006-0.02% of this accessory mineral is enough to explain the range of the electrical resistivity estimated on the basis of MT models. The role of graphite on the thermal behaviour of the crust is also discussed. The results show that low contents of graphite do not significantly change the thermal behaviour of earth materials.     

青藏高原地壳高导层的成因及动力学意义探讨——大地电磁探测提供的证据

大地电磁探测结果显示,青藏高原的中下地壳普遍存在大规模的高导层,其电阻率低于10 Ωm,远低于稳定构造区地壳的平均电阻率值.通过对可能形成地壳内大规模低阻异常地质原因的分析认为,青藏高原地壳中的高导层不可能是由金属矿、石墨层或者单纯的含盐水流体引起的,而很可能是由于地壳岩石的部分熔融或者是部分熔融与含盐水流体共同导致的.这些高导层的形成是与板块运动等动力学过程密切相关的.地壳内的高导层可能是印度板块和亚洲板块俯冲的电性痕迹,其成因与板块俯冲过程中由于摩擦生热导致的岩石部分熔融和脱水作用有关,也可能与岩石圈拆沉造成幔源物质上涌有关.沿高原内主要缝合带均存在东西向连续分布的大规模高导体,有可能是青藏高原下地壳物质向东"逃逸"的证据;其中班公-怒江缝合带可能是最重要的物质运移"通道".     

基于电性结构模型的青藏高原东缘上地幔热结构研究

研究青藏高原东缘地区的深部物质结构对于理解青藏高原的隆升及扩张机制具有重要的科学意义.本文将青藏高原东缘实测大地电磁测深剖面反演所得的岩石圈电性结构模型与高温高压岩石物理实验测得的上地幔矿物和熔融体导电性定量关系相结合,通过Hashin-Shtrikman(HS)边界条件建立上地幔电导率与温度、熔融百分比等参数的定量关系,在此基础上计算得到了青藏高原东缘上地幔热结构及熔融百分比分布模型.研究结果表明在青藏高原东缘地区通过大地电磁测深方法所探测到的上地幔低阻体可以解释为由高温作用所产生的局部熔融区域.其中,松潘—甘孜地块上地幔高导体对应的温度介于1300～1500℃之间,熔融百分比可高达10%,支持前人将松潘—甘孜地块内部的低阻体解释为局部熔融的观点.龙门山断裂带以东、四川盆地西缘的上地幔高导体温度介于1200～1400℃之间,熔融百分比介于1%～5%左右,表明扬子克拉通的西缘可能正在经历一定程度的活化作用.龙门山断裂带下方的上地幔高阻体温度介于1100℃附近,基本没有发生局部熔融,具有较冷的刚性块体特征,与该区域频发的地震活动相吻合.四川盆地东部的扬子上地幔温度介于800～900℃之间,没有发生局部熔融,符合古老稳定的克拉通块体的基本特征.     

Beyond KTB - electrical conductivity of the deep continental crust

Great strides have been made in understanding the upper part of the crust by in-situ logging in, and laboratory experiments on core recovered from super-deep bore-holes such as the KTB. These boreholes do not extend into the lower crust, and can contribute little to the elucidation of mechanisms that produce the high electrical conductivities that are commonly observed therein by magneto-telluric (MT) methods. Laboratory studies at simulated lower crustal conditions of temperature, pressure and saturation, on electrolyte saturated rocks thought to have been derived from the lower crust, have not been possible up until now due to their experimental difficulty. It is necessary to subject electrolyte-saturated rock samples to independently controlled confining and pore-fluid pressure, which implies that the rock be sleeved in some impermeable but deformable material, that can withstand the very high temperatures required. Metals are the only materials capable of being used, but these cause great difficulties for cell sealing and conductivity measurement. In this paper we describe recent breakthroughs in experimental work, specifically the development of two new types of sophisticated metal/ceramic seal, and a conductivity measurement technique that enables the measurement of saturated rock conductivity in the presence of a highly conducting metallic sleeve. The advances in experimental technique have enabled us to obtain data on the electrical conductivity of brine saturated basic, acidic and graphite-bearing rocks at lower crustal temperatures and raised pressures. These data have facilitated the comparison of MT derived crustal electrical conductivity profiles with profiles obtained from laboratory experiments for the first time. Initial modelling shows a good agreement between laboratory derived and MT derived profiles only if the mid-crust is composed of amphibolite pervaded by aqueous fluids, and the lower crust is composed of granulite that is saturated with aqueous fluids and/or contains interconnected grain surface films of graphite. The experimental data are consistent with a three layer crust consisting of an aqueous fluid saturated acidic uppermost layer, above an aqueous fluid saturated amphibolite mid-crust, and a granulite lowermost crust, which may or may not be saturated with aqueous fluids, but if not, requires the presence of an additional conduction mechanism such as conduction through thin graphite films.     

长江中下游成矿带中段岩石圈电性结构研究

长江中下游成矿带位于大别造山带、长江中下游凹陷、江南隆起带等大地构造单元结合部位,通过在研究区内布设两条首尾相接共计150km长的大地电磁剖面,获得了50km以浅岩石圈尺度的电性分布.长江中下游地区中段地下电性结构显示出在地下10km和30km处分别存在明显的圈层结构,以此认为现今横向稳定的"电莫霍"反映了研究区经历燕山期陆内构造-岩浆活动后已基本上完成壳幔重新平衡;而分隔大地构造单元的郯庐断裂带、长江断裂带以及江南断裂带在电性上具有特征的梯度显现,在印支造山期后的引张背景下,断裂带成为强伸展活动带与控制了燕山期大范围的陆内岩浆活动;高导地幔的局域性存在以及从北向南地幔导电性的变化反映了在经受深部动力学过程中处于不同大地构造部位的地幔所遭受的不同类型的改造以及地幔深部的构造极性.     

Effect of hydration on the elasticity of mantle minerals and its geophysical implications

Recent studies have shown that major nominally anhydrous minerals in the Earth’s mantle, such as olivine, pyroxene and garnet, can incorporate considerable amounts of water as structurally bound hydroxyl. Even a small amount of water is present in mantle minerals, it can strongly affect a number of physical properties, including density, sound velocity, melting temperature, and electrical conductivities. The presence of water can also influence the dynamic behavior, lead to lateral velocity heterogeneities, and affect the material circulation of the Earth’s deep interior. In particular, seismic studies have reported the existence of low-velocity zones in various locations of the Earth’s upper mantle and transition zone, which has been expected to be associated with the presence of water in the region. In the past two decades, the effect of water on the elasticity and sound velocities of minerals at relevant pressure-temperature (P-T) conditions of the Earth’s mantle attracted extensive interests. Combining the high P-T experimental and theoretical mineralogical results with seismic observations provides crucial constraints on the distribution of water in the Earth’s mantle. In this study, we summarize recent experimental and theoretical mineral physics results on how water affects the elasticity and sound velocity of nominally anhydrous minerals in the Earth’s mantle, which aims to provide new insights into the effect of hydration on the density and velocity profile of the Earth’s mantle, which are of particular importance in understanding of water distribution in the region.     

青藏高原东缘地壳上地幔电性结构研究进展

经过数十年的努力,中国学者针对青藏高原东缘地壳上地幔探测,累积完成超过20000 km的大地电磁测深剖面,取得了一系列重要科学数据和认识,为青藏高原东缘构造格局、地壳上地幔电性结构、地震机制和动力学研究奠定了基础.根据青藏高原东缘的主要构造和断裂分布特征,本文重点对龙门山构造带、川滇构造带和三江构造带三个构造带分区进行研究,主要依据大地电磁探测工作成果和壳幔电性结构特征,系统地对青藏高原东缘地壳上地幔电性结构、与扬子西缘接触关系、汶川地震和芦山地震的电性孕震环境及弱物质流通道等几个方面进行了梳理和分析.一是青藏高原东缘地壳表层岩块和物质沿壳内高导层向龙门山造山带仰冲推覆,表现为逆冲推覆特征的薄皮构造;二是高原东部地壳中下部及上地幔顶部向龙门山造山带和上扬子地块西缘岩石圈深部俯冲,呈现刚性的上扬子地块西缘高阻楔形体向西插入柔性青藏块体的楔形构造;三是将汶川地震和芦山地震的震源投影到大地电磁剖面上,发现震源位于剖面下方的高阻块体与低阻体之间靠近高阻体的一侧,龙门山构造带岩石圈表现出高阻、高密度和高速的"三高"特征,这种非均匀电性结构可能构成地震孕育发生条件;四是川滇和三江地区的多条大地电磁剖面探测结果表明,在青藏高原东缘中下地壳存在下地壳流和局部管道流,大地电磁结果对其空间分布形态、位置及大小进行了较好的刻画.根据研究区壳幔电性结构特征的构造解析和综合实例分析,总结了青藏高原东缘六类壳幔电性结构模型,提出了下一步重点研究领域和目标.总之,青藏高原东缘壳幔电性结构的研究对揭示研究区岩石圈结构和构造格局提供了重要依据,对油气及矿产资源远景评价提供了背景资料,对"Y"型多地震区的构造关系和发震机理研究具有重要指导意义.     

松辽盆地岩石圈减薄的深部动力学过程

松辽盆地作为东亚裂谷系的一部分,与华北克拉通一起经历了中生代岩石圈减薄的重大地质事件.对大陆岩石圈-软流圈状态和构造的整体认识,是研究大陆岩石圈减薄深部动力学过程的关键.在获得过松辽盆地的106个宽频和30个长周期大地电磁测深数据的基础上,完成测点数据二维偏离度、构造走向等计算与分析,进一步采用非线性共轭梯度算法,对TE和TM模式数据进行二维联合反演,获得了沿剖面的壳-幔电性结构,并依此构建了松辽盆地壳-幔结构模型.研究结果表明：（1）大兴安岭地区岩石圈厚度约为160 km,松辽盆地岩石圈厚度约为45 km,张广才岭岩石圈厚度在70~100 km之间,莫霍面与岩石圈底界面不呈镜像关系.软流圈整体表现为中、低阻异常,电阻率值在30 Ωm左右,其形态呈西倾约30°的蘑菇状异常,指示了软流圈物质上涌的形式,有别于软流圈垂直上涌的传统认识.（2）松辽盆地深部存在双层高导异常（电阻率小于5 Ωm）,上层为壳内高导层,呈"蛇"状分布,推断为岩浆底侵区,下层为幔内高导层,呈"哑铃"状,为软流圈上涌区.软流圈内存在两个"哑铃"状中、高阻异常,推断为拆沉的岩石圈地幔.具有冷的、高密度的下降物质流的堆积以及拆沉块体下插到两侧山岭是促使大兴安岭与张广才岭在中生代伸展环境中快速隆升重要原因;（3）松辽盆地经历了岩石圈减薄事件,与大兴安岭岩石圈厚度相比,松辽盆地岩石圈厚度减薄了近100 km,与东侧张广才岭相比减薄了70 km,而与中生代华北地台100 km的岩石圈厚度相比,减薄了近50 km,其经历了岩石圈伸展期、裂解期、拆沉期和增长期的动力学过程.     

东秦岭岩石层的地电模型

根据大地电磁测深结果,东秦岭河南叶县-湖北南漳地区的岩石层由4个电性单元组成,其中华北地块南缘为相对高温的低阻区;秦岭北部为低温的高阻异常区;南秦岭为高温的低阻区,岩石层平均厚度仅80km,南秦岭的南部推覆到扬子地块之上达40-50km;扬子地块为相对低温的中等电阻率区,岩石层厚度150-200km．利用秦岭地区地壳上地幔岩石样品高温高压条件下电阻率的测定结果推断了各单元岩石层内电性层可能的岩石组成类型,并建立了剖面通过地区岩石层的地电模型．     

华北大地电磁测深阵列观测实验与岩石圈导电性快速成像模型

关于中国大陆岩石圈导电性结构研究越来越引起人们的重视,而目前研究大陆岩石圈导电性结构的主要方法是大地电磁测深（Magnetotelluric sounding）.为此,在国家项目"深部探测技术与实验研究（SinoProbe）"专项里开展了"大陆电磁参数标准网实验（SinoProbe-01）"研究,完成了华北1°×1°地理坐标网度的大地电磁测深"标准点"阵列（Array）观测.本文详细论述了华北SinoProbe-01项目1°×1°MT"标准点"阵列观测实验的概况,以及通过精细的MT数据处理和一维Niblett-Bostick变换快速成像,所获取的华北地区岩石圈导电性三维成像模型.在分析华北岩石圈导电性结构特征的基础上,从电性结构角度把华北与邻区岩石圈划分为胶辽、燕山、鲁西、太行—吕梁等低导电性（高电阻率）块体,内蒙古、阿拉善和祁连中等导电性块体和黄淮、鄂尔多斯、秦岭良导电性（低电阻率）块体,进一步从导电性的角度证实了华北克拉通是由多个块体集合而成的观点.     

三河-平谷8级大震区地壳上地幔电性结构特征研究

用电磁阵列剖面法 (EMAP)、大地电磁测深方法 (MT) ,沿三河 -平谷 8级大震震源区 ,作了 31 8km长的EMAP探测和两条总长 150 0 5km共 36个点的MT探测。获得了研究范围内的地壳上地幔电性结构、高导层特征和陡变带、高导异常体、断裂展布、岩石圈结构等结果 ,为搞清地震危险区的深浅构造关系、从电性结构特征推测发震模式和预测未来强震的可能地点提供了介质电性的多种参数     

Conductivity structure and rheological property of lithosphere in Southern Tibet inferred from super-broadband magnetotelluric sounding

To understand deep lithosphere structure beneath the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau more comprehensively and objectively and to explore important scientific issues,such as characteristics of plateau lithospheric deformation,state of strain,thermal structure,plate (or terrane) movement,and crust-mantle rheology,it is necessary to research the variation of crust-mantle electrical structure in the east-west direction in every geological unit.For this purpose,six super-broadband magnetotelluric (MT) sounding profiles ha...     

Tectonic insight into a pericratonic subcrustal lithosphere affected by anorogenic Cretaceous magmatism in central Brazil inferred from long-period Magnetotellurics

Long period magnetotelluric soundings are available in a 180-km long WSW–ENE profile across the Alto Paranaíba igneous province, a complex Cretaceous alkaline province situated mostly in the southern Neoproterozoic Brasília fold and thrust belt in central Brazil. The data indicate 3D complexity at upper and mid-crust and a simpler 2D regional structure at lower crustal and upper mantle depths. A 2D inversion emphasizing long period data identifies a highly resistive block at the uppermost mantle below the central part of the profile, surrounded by a rapid decrease in resistivity with depth. Resistivities at the block are typical of dry olivine under upper mantle conditions and a deep cratonic lithosphere is defined for this region. It is proposed that the resistive block is a rheologically enduring structure preserved within a southwestward extension of the pericratonic lithosphere of the Archean–Early Proterozoic São Francisco craton that lies beneath the nappes of the Brasília belt. Lower resistivities at shallower upper mantle depths beneath the Sanfranciscana basin at the northeastern end of the profile can be interpreted either as an increased conductivity within the lithosphere or as a localized thinned out lithosphere. The conductivity enhancement possibly arises from the addition of small amounts of water to mantle anhydrous minerals during previous metasomatic percolations.     

On Earth’s Mantle Constitution and Structure from Joint Analysis of Geophysical and Laboratory-Based Data: An Example

Determining Earth’s structure is a fundamental goal of Earth science, and geophysical methods play a prominent role in investigating Earth’s interior. Geochemical, cosmochemical, and petrological analyses of terrestrial samples and meteoritic material provide equally important insights. Complementary information comes from high-pressure mineral physics and chemistry, i.e., use of sophisticated experimental techniques and numerical methods that are capable of attaining or simulating physical properties at very high pressures and temperatures, thereby allowing recovered samples from Earth’s crust and mantle to be analyzed in the laboratory or simulated computationally at the conditions that prevail in Earth’s mantle and core. This is particularly important given that the vast bulk of Earth’s interior is geochemically unsampled. This paper describes a quantitative approach that combines data and results from mineral physics, petrological analyses of mantle minerals, and geophysical inverse calculations, in order to map geophysical data directly for mantle composition (major element chemistry and water content) and thermal state. We illustrate the methodology by inverting a set of long-period electromagnetic response functions beneath six geomagnetic stations that cover a range of geological settings for major element chemistry, water content, and thermal state of the mantle. The results indicate that interior structure and constitution of the mantle can be well-retrieved given a specific set of measurements describing (1) the conductivity of mantle minerals, (2) the partitioning behavior of water between major upper mantle and transition-zone minerals, and (3) the ability of nominally anhydrous minerals to store water in their crystal structures. Specifically, upper mantle water contents determined here bracket the ranges obtained from analyses of natural samples, whereas transition-zone water concentration is an order-of-magnitude greater than that of the upper mantle and appears to vary laterally underneath the investigated locations.