Canadian tornadoes, 1950–1979

Abstract

Other than the ground‐breaking work of McKay and Lowe (1960), little has been known about the incidence of tornadoes and the risk of tornado damage in Canada. Data concerning tornadoes during the period 1950 to 1979 (and earlier) have been gathered from many sources and processed to arrive at a set of quantitative conclusions concerning some of their physical characteristics and climatology.

The data indicate that tornado incidence (the number of tornadoes per unit area per unit time) in populated sections of Canada is compatible with the incidence values published for adjacent American States, and that the highest annual probability of tornado damage is in southwestern Ontario (0.05 to 0.1%) followed by southeastern Manitoba (0.05%).

In terms of size, the Canadian tornado (regardless of intensity) has median damage dimensions of 6 km in length, 80 m in width, and 1 km² in area. In southwestern Ontario, the return period of a strong or violent tornado is 5 years, and it is likely to have median damage dimensions of 57 km in length, 790 m in width, and 78 km² in area.     

豫东南龙卷风时空分布和灾害特征

根据中国气象灾害大典、年鉴、全国与河南省气候影响评价等文献,对豫东南区域1949-2011年30次龙卷风的历史记录逐个进行了时空分析和富士达分级：63 a来发生于6、7月的龙卷风占总次数的2/3;20世纪80年代集中发生在1984年和1986年,90年代仅1990、1993年没有发生,21世纪前10 a主要是2005年的3次（均为F1级）。有24个县（市）曾有龙卷风光顾过,发生最多的汝南和潢川曾遭遇过5次龙卷风袭击,其他县（市）分别出现1～4次不等。灾害特征是较低级别的F0和F1等级较多,F2等级较少,但发生的概率和强度等级均高于豫西。     

冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷气候特征和环境条件

为了研究冷涡与辽宁龙卷的关系,揭示冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷发生的特征,利用1951—2020年辽宁省龙卷观测和灾情数据以及欧洲中期天气预报中心ERA5大气再分析资料,收集整理冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷个例,对比冷涡背景下EF2—4级(EF2+)和EF0—1级(EF1?)龙卷物理量参数的差异.结果表明:(1)冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷主要出现...     

典型强龙卷风暴中的地闪活动特征

闪电活动对于强龙卷天气的发生有一定的指示作用,基于闪电定位资料,结合多普勒天气雷达、探空和ECMWF再分析资料对两次典型强龙卷风暴中地闪的时空演变、雷电流强度及正地闪活动特征进行了统计分析,结果表明:地闪主要发生在组合反射率因子≥30 dBZ的区域内,龙卷发生期间,地闪活动减弱且较为分散。不同龙卷风暴的地闪频次差异较大,这与风暴中上升气流的强度有关;当地闪频次从峰值降至最小值期间,龙卷及地,两次过程中地闪频次峰值分别提前龙卷发生约33 min和28 min。同时,龙卷及地之前,地闪会出现连续多次闪电跃增;龙卷等级越强,正地闪表现越活跃,特征越明显,在江苏盐城阜宁龙卷发生期间,还出现了地闪极性从正地闪主导向负地闪主导的反转;两次龙卷风暴雷电流强度随时间的变化规律并不明显,但均小于历史平均值,地闪发生愈频繁的龙卷风暴,对应的雷电流强度值愈小。      

Climate analysis of tornadoes in China

Based on analysis of historical tornado observation data provided by the primary network of national weather stations in China for the period from 1960 to 2009,it is found that most tornadoes in China(85%)occurred over plains.Specifically,large numbers of tornado occurrences are found in the Northeast Plain,the North China Plain,the middle-lower Yangtze Plain,and the Pearl River Delta Plain.A flat underlying surface is conducive to tornado occurrence,while the latitudal variation of tornado occurrence in China is not so obvious.Tornadoes mainly occur in summer,and the highest frequency is in July.Note that the beginning and the time span of tornado outbreaks are different in North and South China.Tornadoes occur during May-September in South China(south of 25°N),June-September in Northeast China(north of 40°N),July-September in the middle-lower Yangtze Plain,and July-August in North China(between25°and 40°N).More than 80%of total tornadoes occurred during the above periods for the specific regions.The 1960s and 1970s have seen about twice the average number of tornadoes(7.5 times per year)compared to the mean for 1960-2009.The most frequent occurrence of tornado was in the early and mid 1960s;there were large fluctuations in the 1970s;and the number of tornadoes in the 1980s approached the 50-yr average.Tornado occurrences gradually decreased in the late 1980s,and an abrupt change with dramatic decrease occurred in 1994.The decrease in the tornado occurrence frequency is consistent with the simultaneous climatic change in the meteorological elements that are favorable for tornado formation.Tornado formation requires large vertical wind shear and sufficient atmospheric moisture content near the ground.Changes in the vertical wind shear at both 0-1 and 0-6 km appear to be one important factor that results in the decrease in tornado formation.The changing tendency of relative humidity also has contributed to the decrease in tornado formation in China.     

A developing inventory of tornadoes in France

The analysis of 304 French tornadoes shows that the most struck areas are the northwestern part of the country, the south and the east. Tornadoes occur mainly in spring and in summer; August is the month when the frequency is maximum. Tornadoes move mainly from southwest to northeast, except in the south where the direction is sometimes south to north. Thirty-six killer tornadoes were listed (12% of the cases); most of them with an intensity greater or equal to F3. The occurrence is approximately 15–20 tornadoes each year in France, and the annual risk probability of significant tornadoes in France is 0.66×10⁻⁵. This value is probably underestimated because all the tornadoes are not listed.     

核电站周边地区龙卷风时间分布与灾害特征

通过气象站记录、灾害大典、气候影响评价等多种途径,收集到湖北通山核电站周边300km×300km区域范围内1956-2000年龙卷风资料,对龙卷风的时间分布和灾害特征进行了分析。结果表明：龙卷风有明显的时间分布,一年中主要集中在夏春季,以7月、4月最多;一天中,午后至傍晚最多;龙卷风平均持续时间为17min;近45年,1976～1985年这10年中龙卷风出现最频繁;龙卷风出现时,蒲福风力等级一般在10级以上,平均12～13级,最大17级,富士达风力等级平均F1级,最大F3级,风速约70m·s^-1;龙卷风从NW→SE向移动的频次最多;龙卷风影响宽度一般在0．5km内,平均带长为10．0km;龙卷风灾害呈并发性,主要是风灾,往往伴有冰雹、暴雨、雷击及飞射物,使灾害加重。     

2003年7月8日安徽系列龙卷的新一代天气雷达分析

利用合肥新一代天气雷达资料对2003年7月8日夜间发生在安徽庐江和无为县的龙卷过程进行了简要的分析。7月8日夜间至9日凌晨，与一条自西向东移动的、被包裹在大片层状雨区中的带状对流(飑线)相联系，先后有4个径向速度场上明显的小尺度涡旋特征出现在飑线的前沿。其中一个小尺度涡旋特征持续了大约2小时30分，先后在庐江和无为县产生了龙卷。特别是在无为产生的龙卷，造成了严重的生命和财产损失，其级别为F2～F3，属于较强龙卷。分析表明，此次龙卷为非超级单体龙卷，在反射率因子图上几乎没有任何特征，而在径向速度图上呈现为明显的小尺度涡旋特征，说明新一代天气雷达的使用大大增强了对龙卷的探测能力。     

中国龙卷时空分布及其环境物理量特征

利用2004—2012年《中国气象灾害年鉴》和CFSR再分析资料,研究中国龙卷的时空分布以及三个龙卷频发区的环流背景场和环境物理量特征,并比较他们之间的区域差异。结果表明:中国龙卷多发生于春夏季,午后傍晚较多,江苏和广东等平原地区出现龙卷概率最高。龙卷临近时,“江苏及其邻近地区”位于500 hPa槽前,850 hPa上有西南急流,造成了较强的低层垂直风切变;“广东及其邻近地区”在龙卷发生前地面对流有效位能均值达997.3 J/kg,0~1 km螺旋度均值达91 m2/s2,层结不稳定,动力抬升强;“东北地区”受深厚东北冷涡控制,整层水汽含量低,中低层比湿均值小于10 g/kg。通过比较环境物理量平均场的分布特征发现:螺旋度、垂直风切变、能量螺旋度指数和强龙卷参数对分析龙卷发生有很好的指示意义。“东北地区”对流有效位能和比湿均值远低于“江苏及其邻近地区”和“广东及其邻近地区”,但高低空的温度直减率大、中低层的垂直风切变强,该地区也会产生龙卷。      

福清核电厂厂址区域龙卷风设计基准参数的估算

基于1959～2017年福清核电厂区龙卷风的调查资料,采用Rankine涡模型估算该区域超过某一特定风速的概率分布,通过概率值导出设计基准龙卷风和基准设计风速,按照压降模型计算出龙卷风的压降,研究结果表明:福清核电评价区域龙卷风的总压降为4.29 kPa;平移速度13.8 m/s,最大旋转风速57.6 m/s,最大压降速率为1.18 kPa/s,基准设计风速为71.4 m/s,属于F3级别的龙卷风;在125 kg下落的穿甲弹类和2.5 cm实心钢球两种不同情景下计算出的龙卷风产生的飞射物的最大水平碰撞速度均为24.99 m/s、碰撞动量依次为3123.75 kg m s?1和1.615 kg m s?1。这些计算结果,从龙卷风的角度,为政府相关部门在规划和建设福清核电厂时提供了可靠的理论依据。     

辽宁省温带气旋龙卷的环境参数特征

利用欧洲中期天气预报中心ERA5再分析数据, 统计1979—2020年辽宁省42个温带气旋龙卷环境背景和物理量参数特征, 结果表明:辽宁省温带气旋龙卷多发于温带气旋中心的西南、东南象限, 与冷锋前暖区相对应, 主要分布在辽河平原中西部及渤海湾沿岸, 强龙卷(EF2及以上级别)占比为28.6%。风暴相对螺旋度和对流有效位能的大值区出现在气旋西南—东南象限, 呈带状分布, 龙卷风暴主要分布于风暴相对螺旋度大值区西北侧、对流有效位能大值区的顶端的强梯度区附近。强龙卷参数最大值达0.7, 其大值区与EF2及以上级别龙卷相对应。地面冷锋和干线是温带气旋龙卷的关键触发系统, 对比近气旋中心和冷锋尾部湿度垂直分布, 后者所表现的高层强干侵入导致风暴产生更强的冷池, 过强的下沉气流可能是龙卷产生的不利因素。温带气旋龙卷多分布于高空急流左侧气流的分流区内, 对应高空强辐散区。0~3 km垂直温度递减率大值区与气旋中心附近的弱龙卷高发区有较好对应关系。     

基于随机森林的组网雷达龙卷检测算法

近年来我国极端灾害性天气频发,造成了重大人员伤亡和财产损失,随着防灾减灾工作的推进,龙卷等中小尺度强对流灾害性天气的预警预报工作的关注度正逐步提升。现有龙卷检测算法基于对新一代天气雷达基数据在多个仰角和体积扫描中进行阈值判断得到龙卷涡旋特征TVS,在自适应协同观测背景下表现为自适应策略同步较慢,预警预报准确率不高,提前预警时间短。使用机器学习算法结合龙卷在雷达反射率、径向速度和速度谱宽的多重特征能有效提高龙卷识别的准确率和预警时间,能提高组网雷达的协同观测能力。基于随机森林的龙卷检测算法（TDA-RF）,使用CINRAD雷达历史龙卷数据作为训练集,通过随机森林算法对训练集进行分类学习得到龙卷预测模型,使用预测模型对实时雷达数据进行龙卷检测。试验结果表明,TDARF算法能有效识别不同强度的龙卷,较TVS龙卷检测算法能给出龙卷区域的分类概率值,无需对龙卷特征时空连续性进行判断;TDA-RF算法对多个特征进行综合判断具有较好的抗干扰能力,使基于组网雷达的龙卷预警时间最高可达18分钟。     

我国近30年龙卷风研究进展

从3方面总结了龙卷风研究成果:①研究概况,最初的龙卷风灾后调查到开展天气气候特征分析至近年来开展龙卷风本体结构、产生机制的探讨,获得了丰硕成果;②研究方法提高,从事实调查到利用统计方法,从利用台站常规观测资料到运用卫星、多普勒雷达、风廓线仪等非常规资料开展分析,近年数值模式WRF、ARPS等也被用来研究龙卷风,研究的方法手段不断得到改进;③龙卷风研究、预报面临的困难和未来展望。     

皖北两次龙卷过程对比分析

利用常规资料、NCEP再分析资料、高密度地面自动站资料、多普勒天气雷达资料,对安徽省灵璧县和泗县发生的两次龙卷过程进行对比分析。结果表明：龙卷风发生在低空急流的北端左侧以及高湿中心和水汽辐合中心的交汇处;龙卷风发生前低层垂直风切变强烈;龙卷风发生在地面辐合最强的地方,为判断龙卷风可能发生的区域提供了线索;龙卷风发生前10～20 min均有龙卷涡旋特征报警,同时有中等强度中气旋配合;灵璧龙卷风出现在母体风暴的南端,强回波在3 km以下;泗县龙卷风发生在带状回波的中部,中气旋由弱发展为中等强度后一个体扫龙卷出现,龙卷风发生时强回波有断裂和突前以及中气旋顶高下降的特征。     

Investigation into the Formation,Structure, and Evolution of an EF4 Tornado in East China Using a High-Resolution Numerical Simulation

Devastating tornadoes in China have received growing attention in recent years, but little is known about their formation, structure, and evolution on the tornadic scale. Most of these tornadoes develop within the East Asian monsoon regime, in an environment quite different from tornadoes in the U.S. In this study, we used an idealized, highresolution (25-m grid spacing) numerical simulation to investigate the deadly EF4 (Enhanced Fujita scale category 4) tornado that occurred on 23 June 2016 and claimed 99 lives in Yancheng, Jiangsu Province. A tornadic supercell developed in the simulation that had striking similarities to radar observations. The violent tornado in Funing County was reproduced, exceeding EF4 (74 m s^–1), consistent with the on-site damage survey. It was accompanied by a funnel cloud that extended to the surface, and exhibited a double-helix vorticity structure. The signal of tornado genesis was found first at the cloud base in the pressure perturbation field, and then developed both upward and downward in terms of maximum vertical velocity overlapping with the intense vertical vorticity centers. The tornado’s demise was found to accompany strong downdrafts overlapping with the intense vorticity centers. One of the interesting findings of this work is that a violent surface vortex was able to be generated and maintained, even though the simulation employed a free-slip lower boundary condition. The success of this simulation, despite using an idealized numerical approach, provides a means to investigate more historical tornadoes in China.     

湖北大畈核电站周边地区龙卷风参数的计算与分析

通过气象站记录、灾害大典、气候影响评价等多种途径,收集了核电站周边地区的300 km×300 km区域1956—2000年间的龙卷风资料,并根据《核安全导则汇编（上册）》规定的方法详细计算了龙卷风各个参数间的关系,最后给出核电站的龙卷风设计基准参数,即最大风速为70 m/s（对应概率为1×10-8）,平移速度13.5 m/s,旋转半径206 m,最大气压降9.9 hPa,设计基准等级为F3级,这些结论已在设计部门得到应用。     

湖北浠水核电站周边地区龙卷风特征

根据湖北省浠水核电站周边300 km×300 km区域范围内1964—2007年龙卷风资料,对龙卷风的时间分布和灾害特征进行了分析。结果表明：龙卷风有明显的时间分布,一年之中主要集中在春、夏两季,秋、冬季无龙卷风发生,以7月最多;一天之中,午后至傍晚最多,集中在16：00—18：59之间,龙卷风平均持续时间27 min。近44年,21世纪头7年中龙卷风出现最为频繁。龙卷风出现时,蒲福风力等级一般在10级以上,集中出现在12级;富士达风力等级集中出现在F0、F1级,F2级以上出现的几率较小。龙卷风多以自西向东方向移动,影响宽度平均1.20 km,平均带长21.66 km。龙卷风灾害主要是风灾,往往伴有冰雹、暴雨、雷击,破坏力极强。     

A Brief Discussion on the High-Impact Cold-Season Tornado Outbreak During 10-11 December 2021 in the United States

An outbreak of powerful tornadoes tore through multiple states in the central and southern United States from 10 to 11 December 2021. It is claimed the deadliest tornado outbreak that has taken place on December days. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration had confirmed 66 tornadoes as of 21 December, producing at least 90 fatalities. Most tornadoes occurred at night and thus they were difficult to be visually located, which directly increases the risk for local residents. Two violent nighttime tornadoes were rated category 4 on the enhanced Fujita scale (EF4). Although a high death toll was caused during this event, the operational service actually presented an excellent performance. This tornado outbreak has aroused extensive discussion from both the public and the research community in China. This paper presents a brief discussion on the formation environment and warning services of the tornado outbreak. Recall the deadliest violent tornado in the past 45 years in China, the radar-based tornadic vortex signatures at the locations with EF4 damages show a comparable strength with those in the current cases. Some views on the tornado warning issuance and receiving and damage surveys in China are also presented.     

广东两次台风龙卷的环境背景和雷达回波对比

利用常规气象观测、广州多普勒天气雷达及NCEP/NCAR再分析等资料对比广东省佛山市2015年10月4日EF3级和2006年8月4日EF2级台风外围强龙卷过程。结果表明:两次强龙卷都发生在登陆台风的东北象限,低层辐合、高层辐散及中低空强劲东南急流在珠江三角洲叠加是其产生的相似环境背景。环境参数均表现为较小的对流有效位能、低的对流抑制与抬升凝结高度、强的垂直风切变和大的风暴相对螺旋度。两个龙卷母体均为微型超级单体,前者雷达回波强度更强,钩状回波特征更明显;都存在强中气旋和龙卷涡旋特征（TVS）,中气旋都在中低层形成后,向更低层发展最终导致龙卷。TVS比龙卷触地提前1个体扫出现,或与龙卷触地同时发生,中气旋和TVS的底高和顶高均很低。但两次龙卷触地前后,前者中气旋和TVS的底高和顶高出现突降现象,而后者中气旋和TVS的底高和顶高一直维持较低高度。龙卷触地前后,两者风暴单体的最强切变均出现剧增现象,但前者TVS的最强切变更强,比后者大1倍以上。