Microstructural Inhomogeneity and Mechanical Anisotropy Associated with Bedding in Rothbach Sandstone

This study present the result of conventional triaxial tests conducted on samples of Rothbach sandstone cored parallel, oblique (at 45 degrees) and perpendicular to the bedding at effective pressures ranging from 5 to 250 MPa. Mechanical and microstructural data were used to determine the role of the bedding on mechanical strength and failure mode. We find that samples cored at 45 degrees to the bedding yield at intermediate level of differential stress between the ones for parallel and perpendicular samples at all effective pressures. Strain localization at high confining pressure (i.e., in the compactive domain) is observed in samples perpendicular and oblique to the bedding but not in samples cored parallel to the bedding. However, porosity reduction is comparable whether compactive shear bands, compaction bands or homogeneous cataclastic flow develop. Microstructural data suggest that (1) mechanical anisotropy is controlled by a preferred intergranular contact alignment parallel to the bedding and that (2) localization of compaction is controlled by bedding laminations and grain scale heterogeneity, which both prevent the development of well localized compaction features.     

Compaction and Failure in High Porosity Carbonates: Mechanical Data and Microstructural Observations

We investigated systematically the micromechanics of compaction in two carbonates of porosity above 30%, Majella grainstone and Saint Maximin limestone. The composition, grain size and pore surface area of these rocks were determined. Hydrostatic compression experiments were performed under dry and wet conditions beyond the onset of grain crushing. A significant water weakening effect was observed in both rocks. A set of conventional triaxial experiments was also performed on both rocks under dry conditions at confining pressures ranging from 3 to 31 MPa. Microstructural observations were carried out on the deformed samples. The mechanical behavior of these high porosity carbonates is dominated by shear-enhanced compaction associated in most cases with strain hardening. Stress-induced cracking and grain crushing are the dominant micromechanisms of deformation in both rocks. In Majella grainstone, compactive shear bands appeared at low confinement, in qualitative agreement with the deformation bands observed in the field. At higher confining pressures, compaction localization was inhibited and homogeneous cataclastic flow developed. In Saint Maximin limestone, compaction localization was observed at all confining pressures. An increasing number of compactive shear bands at various orientations appeared with increasing strain. These new data suggest that compaction localization is important in the mechanical compaction of high porosity carbonates.     

A Model for the Mechanical Behaviour of Bentheim Sandstone in the Brittle Regime

— The mechanical behaviour of Bentheim sandstone, a homogeneous quartz-rich sandstone with porosity of 22.8%, was investigated by triaxial compression tests conducted on dry samples. At confining pressures up to 35 MPa, the failure mode was characterized by a typical brittle deformation regime, as the samples showed dilatancy and failed by strain softening and brittle faulting. Previous studies have shown that the mechanical behaviour and failure mode of brittle porous granular rocks are governed by the time-dependent growth of microcracks. We analyse this process using the “Pore Crack Model” based on fracture mechanics analysis. It is consistent with the microstructure of porous granular rocks since it considers the growth of axial cracks from cylindrical holes in two dimensions. These cracks grow when their stress intensity factors reach the subcritical crack growth limit. Interaction between neighbouring cracks is introduced by calculating the stress intensity factor as the sum of two terms: a component for an isolated crack and an interaction term computed using the method of successive approximations. It depends on crack length, pore radius, pore density, and applied stresses. The simulation of crack growth from cylindrical holes, associated with a failure criterion based on the coalescence of interacting cracks, is used to compare the theoretical stress at the onset of dilatancy and at macroscopic rupture to the experimental determined values. Our approach gives theoretical results in good agreement with experimental data when microstructural parameters consistent with observations are introduced.     

Initiation and Propagation of Compaction Bands in Dry and Wet Bentheim Sandstone

We investigated initiation and propagation of compaction bands (CB) in six wet and four dry Bentheim sandstone samples deformed in axial compression tests with strain rates ranging from 3.2 × 10^?8 s^?1 to 3.2 × 10^?4 s^?1. Circumferential notches with 0.8-mm width and 5-mm depth served to initiate CB at mid-sample length. Wet samples were saturated with distilled water and deformed at 195 MPa confining pressure and 10 MPa pore pressure. Dry samples were deformed at 185 MPa confining pressure. Twelve P-wave sensors, eight S-wave sensors and two pairs of orthogonally oriented strain-gages were glued to the sample surface to monitor acoustic emission (AE), velocities and local strain during the loading process. Nucleation of compaction bands is indicated by AE clusters close to the notch tips. With progressive loading, AE activity increased and AE hypocenters indicated propagation of a single CB normal to the sample axis. CB propagation from the sample periphery towards the centre was monitored. Microstructural analysis of deformed samples shows excellent agreement between location of AE clusters and CBs. In both dry and wet samples the lateral propagation of CBs was about 100 times faster than axial shortening rates. At the slowest displacement rate, AE activity during band propagation was reduced and CB nucleation in wet samples occurred at 20% lower stresses. This may indicate an increasing contribution of stress corrosion processes to the formation of the compaction bands. In dry and wet samples inelastic compaction energy per area ranged between 16 and 80 kJ m^?2. This is in good agreement with previous estimates from laboratory and field studies.     

Acoustic Emissions Monitoring during Inelastic Deformation of Porous Sandstone: Comparison of Three Modes of Deformation

In some reservoirs, large deformations can occur during oil or gas production because of the effective stress change. For very porous rocks, these production operations can be sufficient to cause inelastic deformation and irreversible damage. Rock formations can undergo deformation by different mechanisms, including dilatancy or pore collapse. In the laboratory, it has been shown that the inelastic deformation and failure mode of porous rocks are pressure sensitive. Indeed, when subjected to an overall compressive loading, a porous rock may fail by shear localization, compaction localization, or by cataclastic compaction. Acoustic emission (AE) records provide important information to understand the failure mode of rocks: the spatial evolution of damage as well as the source mechanisms can be followed using this technique. In this paper, we present three different laboratory axisymmetric compression experiments, performed on Bleurswiller sandstone, which enable us to compare the acoustic emission signature of these three modes of deformation. Our data show that compaction localization and cataclastic compaction are characterized by similar acoustic signatures (in terms of AE sources characteristics and evolution of AE number), in comparison to the acoustic signature from shear localization. This implies similar micromechanisms involved during compaction bands formation and cataclastic compaction.     

热水条件下黑云母断层泥的摩擦强度与稳定性

黑云母是自然界常见的层状硅酸盐矿物,其摩擦系数不高且化学稳定性好,对其摩擦性质的关注可能会对弱断层的研究有所帮助.本次工作选取的实验温度条件对应于典型地壳强度模型中脆塑性转化带的范围,为300 ℃和400 ℃.有效正应力为200 MPa,孔隙水压包括10 MPa和30 MPa,在此条件下对黑云母模拟断层泥进行摩擦实验研究.实验得出黑云母的摩擦系数平均在0.36左右.速度依赖性随温度升高速度弱化的程度增强,表现为300 ℃为十分微弱的速度弱化,而在400 ℃出现了黏滑行为,代表了更强的速度弱化.显微结构中同时出现了脆性剪切变形和塑性扭折变形,但决定宏观力学性质的显然是脆性剪切变形.在黑云母存在的情况下,本研究的实验结果有助于理解大陆地壳脆塑性转化带中地震的可能性和弱断层深部的变形机制、宏观力学行为以及地震活动.     

三轴压缩下两类砂岩变形破坏的实验研究

本文讨论了围压高达700MPa的条件下,发生实验变形的长石砂岩和石英砂岩的变形模式和变形机制。完整长石砂岩的脆延过渡带在200—400MPa,完整石英砂岩的脆延过渡带在250—350MPa,长石砂岩在600MPa围压以上出现高压脆化现象;两类切口岩石的稳滑粘滑过渡界限分别是200MPa和150MPa。不同的变形模式主要起因于程度不同的碎裂机制。文中还对矿物成分的影响、脆性行为之延伸等有关问题进行了简要讨论     

Multiple generations of pseudotachylyte in the brittle to ductile regimes, Qinling–Dabie Shan ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic complex, central China

Abstract Pseudotachylytes are present along the Dahezhen shear zone in the Qinling–Dabie Shan collisional orogenic belt, central China. Two types of pseudotachylyte vein are documented in the shear zone: cataclasite‐related pseudotachylyte (C‐Pt) and mylonite‐related pseudotachylyte (M‐Pt). M‐Pt is associated with mylonite‐development and is overprinted by C‐Pt. All of the quartz and most of the feldspar porphyroclasts within the M‐Pt are plastically deformed, but not in the C‐Pt. Dynamically recrystallized fine‐grained quartz and feldspar bands are oriented subparallel to the mylonite and M‐Pt foliation, and partially surround the porphyroclasts. Our results suggest that the M‐Pt formed cyclically in the ductile region at estimated conditions of 400–650°C and 400–800 MPa due to propagation of seismic fracturing associated with the thrusting‐related rapid exhumation of the ultrahigh‐pressure metamorphic complex in the brittle regime down to a greater depth than the base of the seismogenic zone. The M‐Pt and mylonite formed in the Dahezhen shear zone at estimated conditions of 400–650°C and 400–800 MPa. The coexistence of C‐Pt and M‐Pt in the same shear zone suggests that repeated seismic slips occurred in both the brittle and ductile portions of the crust during the thrusting‐related rapid exhumation of the ultrahigh‐pressure metamorphic complex.     

不同围压下孔隙度不同的干燥及水饱和岩样中的纵横波速度及衰减

选择具有不同孔隙度的三种岩石样品,在最高达600MPa （干燥样品）或300MPa （水饱和样品）的不同围压条件下,同时测量了在其中传播的纵、横波的速度及衰减。对于低孔隙度的花岗岩,干燥和水饱和样品的 Q 值几乎没有差别,但与干燥样品相比,水饱和样品中的纵波速度较高而横波速度稍低。对于中等孔隙度的杂砂岩,干燥样品和水饱和样品的波速和 Q 值及其随围压的变化有明显的不同。在高孔隙度的砂岩中这种不同更加显著。综合分析同时测得的纵、横波速度和 Q 值可以发现,当围压增加时,低孔隙度的花岗岩中同体应变相关的能量损失与同剪切应变相关的能量损失之比减小,但在中等孔隙度的杂砂岩和高孔隙度的砂岩中这一比值增大;同时,水饱和样品中的这一比值要比干燥样品中的大,而且它们之间的差别同样品的孔隙度正相关。     

热水条件下透辉石的摩擦本构特征

为了研究下地壳主要造岩矿物之一的辉石在摩擦滑动中的力学性质,本文选择辉石中的透辉石作为实验样品,在约200 MPa有效正应力（30 MPa孔隙水压）及100~600℃的热水条件下进行了速度阶跃摩擦滑动实验,在滑动开始后将剪切滑动速率在0.122 μm·s^-1和1.22 μm·s^-1之间进行切换来确定摩擦滑动对速度变化的响应.通过实验发现：透辉石在102~200℃表现为速度强化,随着温度升高,在约215℃附近从速度强化转变为速度弱化.在310℃以上,速度弱化的程度受温度的影响不大,而且摩擦本构参数a值和b值随温度的变化趋势相同.对变形样品的显微观测发现,与其速度强化行为相对应的微观变形主要以数条平行的R1剪切为主,卸样时造成的裂纹集中在R1剪切内部,形态长而曲折;与其速度弱化行为相对应的断层泥内部,剪切带变窄且数量明显增加,在内部互相连接,在边界附近多发育B剪切,卸样时形成的裂纹大量存在于B剪切带与R1剪切附近,形态短且平直.     

组构对花岗片麻岩高温流变影响的实验研究

深部岩石先存的变形组构对流变特性影响的实验研究是新的研究热点之一,然而目前相关的实验研究非常有限.本文利用3 GPa固体介质熔融盐三轴高温高压容器,选择华北克拉通北部辽东拆离断层带中具有变形组构的花岗片麻岩样品,在温度600~840℃、围压800~1200 MPa、应变速率1×10^-4~2.5×10^-6/S条件下,对不同组构方向的样品(实验压缩方向分别垂直和平行花岗片麻岩的面理)开展高温高压流变实验.实验结果表明,在相同的应变速率和温度条件下,垂直面理的岩石强度比平行面理的岩石强度要高.两组实验样品在600~700℃时,应力指数平均值为6.5,为半脆性流变;在800~840℃时,应力指数平均值为2,垂直面理样品的激活能为Q=380 kJ/mol,平行面理样品的激活能为Q=246.4 kJ/mol,以塑性变形为主,局部存在黑云母和角闪石的脱水熔融.微观结构研究表明,垂直面理的样品,在变形过程中形成了新的变形条带,把原有的面理破坏改造;而平行面理的样品,在实验变形过程中新的变形带主体继承了原有组构.EBSD分析显示花岗片麻岩原岩中石英轴极密区位于Z轴附近,为底面滑移;压缩方向垂直面理的样品,石英组构轴极密区位于X轴附近,为柱面滑移;压缩方向平行面理的样品,石英组构轴极密区位于Z轴附近,伴有少量的Y轴极密,底面滑移和柱面滑移.这表明垂直面理的样品中石英变形改造比平行面理的样品更彻底,这与微观结构分析结果一致.显然实验样品的非均匀组构对样品强度和石英轴定向等具有显著影响,但对样品的脆塑性转化和塑性变形机制没有实质影响,这对理解地壳深部普遍存在的形态各向异性岩石流变具有重要参考价值.     

Petrophysical study of faults in sandstone using petrographic image analysis and X-ray computerized tomography

Petrographic image analysis (PIA) and X-ray computerized tomography (CT) provide local determinations of porosity in sandstone. We have investigated small faults called deformation bands in porous sandstones using these techniques. Because the petrophysical properties of the fault rock vary at a small scale (mm scale), the ability of PIA and CT to determine porosity in small volumes of rock and to map porosity distribution in two and three dimensions is crucial. This information is used to recognize the processes involved in fault development and the different kinds of microstructures associated with dilatancy and compaction. The petrophysical study of fault rock in sandstone permits one to make predictions of the hydraulic properties of a fault and thereby evaluate the sealing or fluid transmitting characteristics of faulted reservoirs and aquifers. The results of this study indicate that faulting in sandstone alters the original porosity and permeability of the host rock: the porosity is reduced by an order of magnitude and the permeability is reduced by one to more than seven orders of magnitude for faults associated with compaction.     

Modelling microseismicity of a producing reservoir from coupled fluid‐flow and geomechanical simulation

In this paper, we investigate production induced microseismicity based on modelling material failure from coupled fluid‐flow and geomechanical simulation. The model is a graben style reservoir characterized by two normal faults subdividing a sandstone reservoir into three compartments. The results are analysed in terms of spatial and temporal variations in distribution of material failure. We observe that material failure and hence potentially microseismicity is sensitive to not only fault movement but also fluid movement across faults. For sealing faults, failure is confined to the volume in and around the well compartment, with shear failure localized along the boundaries of the compartment and shear‐enhanced compaction failure widespread throughout the reservoir compartment. For non‐sealing faults, failure is observed within and surrounding all three reservoir compartments as well as a significant distribution located near the surface of the overburden. All shear‐enhanced compaction failures are localized within the reservoir compartments. Fault movement leads to an increase in shear‐enhanced compaction events within the reservoir as well as shear events located within the side‐burden adjacent to the fault. We also evaluate the associated moment tensor mechanisms to estimate the pseudo scalar seismic moment of failure based on the assumption that failure is not aseismic. The shear‐enhanced compaction events display a relatively normal and tight pseudo scalar seismic moment distribution centred about 10⁶ Pa, whereas the shear events have pseudo scalar seismic moments that vary over three orders of magnitude. Overall, the results from the study indicate that it may be possible to identify compartment boundaries based on the results of microseismic monitoring.     

定量表征压实和胶结作用的砂岩声波速度岩石物理模型

成岩作用是影响砂岩声波速度的地质因素之一,定量表征压实和胶结作用的砂岩声波速度岩石物理模型具有重要的理论和实践应用意义.选取视压实率和视胶结率定量表征砂岩成岩作用,通过建立视压实率与颗粒配位数的关系将压实作用的影响引入修正的定量表征胶结作用的CCT模型,最终建立了一种能够定量表征压实和胶结作用对砂岩声波速度影响的岩石物理模型.理论考察发现,随胶结率的增大,岩石声波速度首先迅速增大,随后趋于稳定;随视压实率增大,岩石声波速度同样逐渐增大,当胶结率较大时声波速度变化更为明显.为了验证该声波速度模型,分别对人造砂岩和天然样品进行了声波速度实验观测,结果表明：实验结果与理论分析的趋势吻合良好.该模型易于使用,能够为应用地震和测井资料识别有利储层、定量评价孔隙度以及开展横波速度预测等应用提供理论基础.     

Acoustic and petrophysical relationships in low-shale sandstone reservoir rocks

This paper describes the measurements of the acoustic and petrophysical properties of two suites of low‐shale sandstone samples from North Sea hydrocarbon reservoirs, under simulated reservoir conditions. The acoustic velocities and quality factors of the samples, saturated with different pore fluids (brine, dead oil and kerosene), were measured at a frequency of about 0.8 MHz and over a range of pressures from 5 MPa to 40 MPa. The compressional‐wave velocity is strongly correlated with the shear‐wave velocity in this suite of rocks. The ratio V_P/V_S varies significantly with change of both pore‐fluid type and differential pressure, confirming the usefulness of this parameter for seismic monitoring of producing reservoirs. The results of quality factor measurements were compared with predictions from Biot‐flow and squirt‐flow loss mechanisms. The results suggested that the dominating loss in these samples is due to squirt‐flow of fluid between the pores of various geometries. The contribution of the Biot‐flow loss mechanism to the total loss is negligible. The compressional‐wave quality factor was shown to be inversely correlated with rock permeability, suggesting the possibility of using attenuation as a permeability indicator tool in low‐shale, high‐porosity sandstone reservoirs.     

基于团簇的岩石动态CT图像可视化与结构变形分析

岩石的变形机制是研究岩石圈变形和局部构造活动的重要基础,岩石的微观结构是研究其变形机制的关键。微观层析成像（微观CT）技术可以无损地获取样品内部高精度三维数字化图像,为观测岩石内部结构提供了技术保证。新近发展起来的动态CT技术,使得观测岩石变形过程成为可能。本文利用一组莱塔石灰岩受差应力变形的三维动态CT图像数据,通过图像切割、图像分割等处理步骤,以团簇为基本表征单位,表征不同形状、大小孔隙的动态变化过程,分析对比全部孔隙、大团簇、小团簇和裂隙型小团簇的动态图像。结果表明:随着岩石的压缩变形,其大孔隙在不断地缩小;在变形的初始阶段,靠近施压活塞的样品上部出现了密集的新生小孔隙;当岩石所受差应力到达73 MPa时,其下半部出现了明显的剪切带,具体表现为大量的新生裂隙生成并且新生裂隙集中带与轴向成约45°交角。此前的研究观测到该样品中下部若干压缩带形成的过程;本文通过基于团簇的可视化技术,观测到了高孔隙度岩石变形过程中压缩带和剪切带共同形成的过程。同时,新生的沿剪切带分布的微小裂隙并没有显示与剪切带相同的方向,而是具有各方向均匀分布的特征。该特征可能与岩石内部复杂的局部孔隙结构有关,是值得进一步探讨的问题。      

Frictional Properties and Microstructure of Calcite-Rich Fault Gouges Sheared at Sub-Seismic Sliding Velocities

We report an experimental and microstructural study of the frictional properties of simulated fault gouges prepared from natural limestone (96 % CaCO₃) and pure calcite. Our experiments consisted of direct shear tests performed, under dry and wet conditions, at an effective normal stress of 50 MPa, at 18–150 °C and sliding velocities of 0.1–10 μm/s. Wet experiments used a pore water pressure of 10 MPa. Wet gouges typically showed a lower steady-state frictional strength (μ = 0.6) than dry gouges (μ = 0.7–0.8), particularly in the case of the pure calcite samples. All runs showed a transition from stable velocity strengthening to (potentially) unstable velocity weakening slip above 80–100 °C. All recovered samples showed patchy, mirror-like surfaces marking boundary shear planes. Optical study of sections cut normal to the shear plane and parallel to the shear direction showed both boundary and inclined shear bands, characterized by extreme grain comminution and a crystallographic preferred orientation. Cross-sections of boundary shears, cut normal to the shear direction using focused ion beam—SEM, from pure calcite gouges sheared at 18 and 150 °C, revealed dense arrays of rounded, ~0.3 μm-sized particles in the shear band core. Transmission electron microscopy showed that these particles consist of 5–20 nm sized calcite nanocrystals. All samples showed evidence for cataclasis and crystal plasticity. Comparing our results with previous models for gouge friction, we suggest that frictional behaviour was controlled by competition between crystal plastic and granular flow processes active in the shear bands, with water facilitating pressure solution, subcritical cracking and intergranular lubrication. Our data have important implications for the depth of the seismogenic zone in tectonically active limestone terrains. Contrary to recent claims, our data also demonstrate that nanocrystalline mirror-like slip surfaces in calcite(-rich) faults are not necessarily indicative of seismic slip rates.     

Shear Band Formation in Numerical Simulations Applying a Continuum Damage Rheology Model

In seismically active regions, faults nucleate, propagate, and form networks that evolve over time. To simulate crustal faulting processes, including the evolution of fault-zone properties, a rheological model must incorporate concepts such as damage rheology that describe the various stages of the seismic cycle (strain localization, subcritical crack growth and macroscopic failure) while accounting for material degradation and healing and off-fault deformation. Here we study the fundamental patterns of strain-localisation within the framework of a continuum damage rheology by performing a shear band analysis (linear instability analysis) and comparing predictions of shear band orientations with numerical results of the nonlinear problem. We find (analytically and numerically) that the angle between the shear band and the less compressive (transverse) direction is between 47° in compression tests with a strain ratio of 0.25 (highly confined compression test), and 60° for a strain ratio higher than 1.4 (axial compression and transverse extension). In addition we find that shear bands exhibit local dilation (I ₁ > 0) in a wide range of strain ratios excluding only simulations with highly confined compression (which yield compacting shear bands or non-localized deformation). Finally, we discuss the applicability of the damage model for simulating deformation in the seismogenic, brittle crust.     

Magma fragmentation dynamics: experiments with analogue porous low-strength material

 Experiments were conducted on the fragmentation of analogue low-strength porous material (plastiprin) by rapid decompression in a shock-tube-type apparatus. The porous samples (length=365 mm, cross-section dimensions 40×40 mm) pressurized by air to pressures up to 0.9 MPa, were rapidly decompressed to 0.1 MPa. Rapid decompression of samples caused fragmentation and ejection of the fragmentation products into a large volume tank. The process of analogue material fragmentation was documented using high-speed cinematography and dynamic pressure measurements. The duration of the fragmentation event is significantly shorter than that of the ejection event. The fragmentation of material precedes the acceleration of fragments. As a result of fragmentation, sub-parallel fractures are generated. The characteristic fragment size decreases as the initial pressure differential increases. The ejected fragments obtain velocities of 60 m/s. The mechanisms of material fragmentation during unloading and fragmentation wave propagation are discussed. The experimental results provide insight into the fragmentation dynamics of highly viscous magmas in which brittle failure at high strain rate is possible. Received: 23 July 1997 / Accepted: 23 November 1997