青海沱沱河地区赛多浦岗日二长花岗岩中黑云母化学成分特征及地质意义

电子探针分析结果表明,沱沱河地区赛多浦岗日二长花岗岩中黑云母具有富MgO、SiO_2、(Na_2O+K_2O),相对贫Al_2O_3、FeO~t的特征;镁质率(M=0.60~0.65)高,∑Al值(1.30~1.39)偏低,中等Fe/(Mg+Fe)(0.42~0.44)比值,为镁质黑云母;估算其结晶温度为580℃~645℃,且岩浆体系具有较高的氧逸度。黑云母的成分特征显示其寄主岩体为造山背景下形成的钙碱性花岗岩,其源区具有壳-幔混源的特征。     

河南栾川南泥湖和上房沟花岗岩体黑云母成分特征及其成岩成矿意义

河南栾川南泥湖和上房沟花岗岩体与钼多金属成矿作用密切相关。本文用电子探针测试方法,分析了南泥湖岩体和上房沟岩体中黑云母的成分特征。结果表明,2个岩体中黑云母均具有高硅、富镁、低铝和贫铁的特征,属镁质黑云母。2个岩体的结晶温度分别为730~830℃和750~860℃,氧逸度(logfO2)分别为-8.5~-7.0和-8.0~-6.5,结晶压力和深度分别为72~120MPa、54~127MPa和2.62~4.37km、1.97~4.63km,有利于南泥湖-三道庄和上房沟超大型钼矿床的形成,地球化学特征显示2个岩体均属壳幔混源的Ⅰ型花岗岩,属深源中浅成花岗岩。     

华南印支期弱过铝质和强过铝质花岗岩中黑云母的矿物化学及其岩石成因制约

华南印支期岩浆活动强烈,并形成了大量的花岗质岩石,按矿物组合可将其分为含典型过铝质矿物白云母、电气石、黄玉的强过铝质花岗岩(SPG)和含角闪石、黑云母等镁铁质矿物,而缺乏典型过铝质矿物的弱过铝质花岗岩(WPG)两大类。黑云母是花岗岩类岩石中最常见的镁铁质矿物之一,其成分特征可以有效示踪花岗岩的成岩物理-化学条件和源区性质。以赣南印支期龙源坝岩体和湘中白马山岩体为例,对华南印支期花岗岩中两类过铝质岩石的黑云母矿物化学成分进行研究,结果显示WPG中黑云母富镁、贫铝、贫铁,属镁质黑云母,而SPG中黑云母贫镁、富铝、富铁,属铁质黑云母。黑云母平衡结晶温度和氧逸度估算结果显示,WPG比SPG具有更高的岩浆温度和氧逸度。WPG属于壳幔岩浆混合产物,而SPG则来自于接近纯地壳沉积物质部分熔融产物。花岗岩中黑云母的化学成分可以有效判断源区性质,无法单独判断构造背景。     

秦岭造山带光头山岩体群黑云母地球化学特征及成岩意义

针对南秦岭光头山岩体群的岩相学和黑云母地球化学分析,进而对秦岭造山带晚三叠世花岗岩形成的温度、压力和氧逸度等物理化学条件进行专门的研究。其中岩相学观察表明,光头山岩体群主要由黑云母二长花岗岩和花岗闪长岩组成。电子探针分析结果表明黑云母二长岗岩中的黑云母是铁质黑云母,花岗闪长岩中的黑云母是镁质黑云母,所测黑云母的Fe2+/(Fe2++Mg)比值变化范围较小,表明其未受到后期改造,为原生黑云母,可以用来估算岩体的成岩物理化学条件。根据黑云母地球化学成分计算的成岩温度为(645~710)℃,压力为(126~309)MPa,logfo2为-12~-15,岩体侵位于中上地壳层次(约8.6km)。黑云母地球化学分析还表明,光头山岩体群主要为过铝质-造山带钙碱性花岗岩,岩浆以壳源为主兼具壳幔混源的特征。     

滇西古永地区花岗岩中黑云母成分特征及其成岩成矿意义

滇西古永地区花岗岩与锡矿床在成因上密切相关。黑云母的电子探针分析结果表明,古永黑云母二长花岗岩中的黑云母为铁质黑云母,小龙河锡矿床黑云母似斑状二长花岗岩中的黑云母为铁叶云母。两花岗岩体中黑云母总体显示出富铁(w(TFe O)=22.39%~27.91%)贫镁(w(Mg O)=1.08%~10.51%,含镁系数为0.07~0.50)的特征;但两岩体花岗岩中黑云母的化学成分具有明显的差异,古永花岗岩体中黑云母表现出相对富镁,为含幔源物质混入的I型花岗岩;而小龙河成矿花岗岩体中黑云母相对富铝贫镁,为典型壳源过铝质的S型花岗岩。古永花岗岩体和小龙河花岗岩体中黑云母的结晶温度分别为700~750℃、620~650℃,氧逸度(lgf(O2))分别为-14.0~-13.8、-17.5~-17.2。古永岩体花岗岩中黑云母结晶压力为67~120 MPa,结晶深度为2.54~4.55 km。表明本区花岗岩形成于相对高温、低氧逸度、较浅的环境。相对于古永花岗岩体,小龙河花岗岩体具有更大的Sn成矿潜力,更有利于本区锡矿床的形成。     

西秦岭早子沟金矿黑云母成分特征及成岩成矿指示意义

甘肃省夏河-合作矿集区是西秦岭造山带中重要的金矿富集区之一,早子沟金矿为其中最为著名的特大型矿床,矿区中酸性脉岩极为发育,与成矿具有密切联系。本次在早子沟金矿床野外调研的基础上,针对矿区主要脉岩中的黑云母进行了电子探针分析。结果表明,早子沟金矿中酸性脉岩中主要为岩浆黑云母,黑云母中FeO_t含量为19.71%~29.84%,MgO含量为9.54%~13.51%,兼有镁质、铁质黑云母的特点;黑云母的结晶温度为776.61~799.65℃,结晶压力为131~283 MPa,氧逸度lg f_O2为-14.85~-13.11,表现为高温、低压、较高氧逸度的特征。通过黑云母化学成分特征分析表明早子沟金矿脉岩属钙碱性花岗岩,为壳幔混源成因。早子沟金矿脉岩黑云母的这些矿物化学特征及其所指示的地质背景,揭示了早子沟脉岩代表的该套岩浆为形成大型热液矿床创造了有利条件。     

大兴安岭托河林场毕利亚山碱长花岗岩黑云母地球化学特征及地质意义

根据大兴安岭毕利亚山碱长花岗岩黑云母的电子探针(EPMA)测试结果,对黑云母的化学成分特征、成因类型及结晶时的温度和氧逸度进行了研究,并探讨岩浆源区的性质及成岩背景。毕利亚山碱长花岗岩黑云母具有高Si(SiO_2:39.876%~42.419%)、富Mg(MgO:18.138%~20.02%)、贫Fe(FeO~t:10.549%~11.468%)特征,属镁质黑云母;黑云母的结晶温度为590℃~650℃,且具有较高的氧逸度。其∑Al的值为1.01~1.044,Fe/(Mg+Fe)的值为0.228~0.262。Mg/(Mg+Fe~(2+)+Mn)的值为0.673~0.834,FeO~t/(FeO~t+MgO)的值为0.345~0.387,指示了其岩浆源区为富镁的岩石圈地幔,并且在岩浆演化过程中发生混染作用。     

玲珑黑云母花岗岩成因:矿物学特征约束

晚侏罗世玲珑黑云母花岗岩广泛分布于胶东半岛西北部,是胶东半岛众多中生代侵入岩中出露面积最大的岩体,为区内主要赋矿围岩。有关其成岩物理化学条件、岩石成因类型和源区特征却一直存在争议。本文在系统的岩石学和岩相学研究基础上,对钾长石、斜长石、黑云母和角闪石等主要造岩矿物进行了成分分析,以期厘定成岩物理化学条件,并进一步约束岩石成因。研究结果表明:钾长石K_2O含量为14.17%~15.85%,平均15.14%,Na_2O含量为0.62%~1.50%,平均1.04%,属于正长石(Or=86.51~94.35);斜长石Na_2O含量为8.41%~10.02%,平均9.11%,CaO含量为3.05%~4.54%,平均3.99%,属于更长石(Ab=74.97~84.56);黑云母相对富铁(FeO为18.49%~21.64%,平均20.13%)、贫镁(Mg O为8.06%~10.89%,平均9.50%),为镁铁黑云母或富铁黑云母;角闪石富铁(FeO为21.24%~22.24%,平均21.68%)、贫镁(Mg O为5.75%~6.57%,平均6.11%),均为含铁韭闪石质普通角闪石。花岗岩不同温压条件下的水逸度图解显示岩体形成压力为2.7~3.2kbar,深度为10~12km;锆石饱和温度计(综合前人数据计算得到)、角闪石-斜长石温度计和二长石温度计结果分别表明岩浆侵位温度为728~795℃,结晶温度为614~682℃,最后在531~565℃温度下固结成岩;黑云母和角闪石成分表明岩体形成时氧逸度较低,为-21.67~-16.73。黑云母化学成分Mg O与Al_2O_3呈现负相关性,说明其结晶过程中可能发生了Mg~(2+)和Al~(3+)的置换反应,结合黑云母Mg O-FeO-Al_2O_3图解可知岩体具有钙碱性花岗岩的特征。黑云母的含铁系数、MF值、AlⅥ值和较低的氧逸度指示玲珑黑云母花岗岩为S型花岗岩。黑云母具有由核部到边部FeO、Mg O和K_2O含量均一的特征,结合黑云母FeO/(FeO+Mg O)-Mg O图解、黑云母MF值以及角闪石Mg#值说明岩石物质来源为壳源。玲珑黑云母花岗岩中斜长石和黑云母的种属,岩体内大量太古宙继承锆石和产出方向与区域胶东群一致的胶东群残留体进一步说明其可能是胶东群部分熔融的产物,形成过程中没有明显幔源物质的参与。     

东昆仑东段加鲁河中基性岩体环石英捕虏晶角闪石和黑云母矿物学特征及其对岩浆混合过程的约束

加鲁河中基性岩体位于东昆仑造山带东段,岩体边部岩浆混合作用明显,富含暗色环边石英,是研究岩浆混合作用的理想地质体。本文在详细岩石学研究基础上,对寄主岩(香加南山花岗岩基)-包体-包体捕虏晶-暗色环边石英的矿物(黑云母和角闪石)进行电子探针成分分析。研究表明,不同类型黑云母的Fe~(2+)/(Fe~(2+)+Mg)比值基本一致,介于0.53~0.59,寄主岩黑云母的MgO含量较低(8.06%~8.29%),包体捕虏晶-暗色环边的黑云母MgO含量较高(分别为9.38%~9.45%和9.25%~9.52%);不同类型角闪石的(Ca+AlⅣ)较高,大于0.5,寄主岩角闪石具有较高的FeO~T含量(20.27%~21.01%)和较低Mg#值(45~47);包体-包体捕虏晶-暗色环边的角闪石具有较低的FeO~T含量(分别为18.31%~19.49%、18.11%~18.90%和18.01%~18.43%)和较高的Mg#值(分别为50~54、52~53和55~60)。寄主岩的角闪石(为铁浅闪石)和黑云母(为铁质黑云母)具壳型特征;包体-包体捕虏晶-暗色环边的角闪石(为镁角闪石)和包体-暗色环边的黑云母(为镁质黑云母)具壳幔型特征。寄主岩和包体捕虏晶的角闪石具有近似的成分和结晶环境,显示包体与寄主岩间存在成分交换。早期富水岩浆有利于磁铁矿和钛铁矿结晶,使晚期结晶的暗色环边矿物(黑云母和角闪石)具有较高的MgO含量和较低的FeO~T含量,以及最低的结晶温度和压力。     

赣杭构造带灵山花岗岩体黑云母的矿物化学特征及其对岩石成因的指示意义

灵山花岗岩体在平面上为一环状分布的侵入体,中心为角闪石黑云母花岗岩,外围为黑云母花岗岩。在角闪石黑云母花岗岩中分布有大量的暗色镁铁质微粒包体。黑云母是大多数中酸性火成岩中比较重要的一种镁铁质矿物,它能很好地反映寄主岩浆的属性和成岩时的物理、化学条件,因此,本文对这两种花岗岩及镁铁质微粒包体中的黑云母开展了系统的岩相学观察和电子探针化学组成研究,探讨灵山岩体的物质来源、成岩条件和岩浆的混合作用过程。研究结果表明两种花岗岩体的黑云母具有不同化学成分,而暗色镁铁质微粒包体中黑云母的化学成分则变化较大。三种黑云母均在低氧逸度条件下晶出。两种花岗岩中的黑云母均富Fe贫Mg,属于铁质黑云母,含铁系数[(Fe~(3+)+Fe~(2+))/(Fe~(3+)+Fe~(2+)+Mg~(2+))]分别为0.65~0.70,0.72~0.78,FeOT/MgO均接近7.04。MF值[2×Mg/(Fe~(2+)+Mg+Mn)]分别为0.64~0.76和0.48~0.60,指示两种花岗岩的物质来源都是以壳源为主。镁铁质微粒包体中黑云母的MF值变化范围比较大,为0.63~1.06,为铁质黑云母到镁质黑云母,暗示包体岩浆经历过不同程度的岩浆混合作用。镁铁质微粒包体中部分黑云母与角闪石黑云母花岗岩中黑云母的结晶条件相似,而部分则有明显差异,推测是由于基性的镁铁质包体岩浆注入到酸性的花岗岩浆是一个连续多阶段的过程。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

---

Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

---

Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

---

, . . . . , . , .. . , , . , , , . , - , , , : , , . .. , , , , , . . , : , — , . , . , , , . .

---

---

Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.