Geology and Isotope Geochemistry of the Yinchanggou-Qiluogou Pb-Zn Deposit, Sichuan Province, Southwest China

The Yinchanggou-Qiluogou Pb-Zn deposit,located in the western Yangtze Block,southwest China,is hosted by the Upper Sinian Dengying Formation dolostone.Ore bodies occur in the Qiluogou anticline and the NS-and NNW-trending faults.Sulfide ores mainly consist of sphalerite,pyrite,galena and calcite,with subordinate dolomite and quartz.Seventeen ore bodies have been discovered to date and they have a combined 1.0 million tons of sulfide ores with average grades of 2.27wt%Zn and 6.89wt%Pb.The δD_(H2O-SMOW) and δ~(18)O_(H2O-SMOW) values of fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite samples range from-68.9‰ to-48.7‰ and 7.3‰ to 15.9‰,respectively,suggesting that H_2O in the hydrothermal fluids sourced from metamorphic water.Calcite samples have δ~(13)C_(PDB) values ranging from-6.2‰ to-4.1‰ and δ~(18)O_(SMOW) values ranging from 15.1‰ to 17.4‰,indicating C and O in the hydrothermal fluids likely derived from a mixed source of metamorphic fluids and the host carbonates.The δ~(34)S_(CDT) values of sulfide minerals range from 5.5‰ to 20.3‰,suggesting that thermal chemical reduction of sulfate minerals in evaporates were the most probable source of S in the hydrothermal fluids.The ~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb,~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb and ~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb ratios of sulfide minerals fall in the range of 18.11 to 18.40,15.66 to 15.76 and 38.25 to 38.88,respectively.The Pb isotopic data of the studied deposit plot near the upper crust Pb evolution curve and overlap with the age-corrected Proterozoic basement rocks and the Upper Sinian Dengying Formation hosting dolostone.This indicates that the Pb originated from a mixed source of the basement metamorphic rocks and the ore-hosting carbonate rocks.The ore geology and C-H-O-S-Pb isotopic data suggest that the YinchanggouQiluogou deposit is an unusual carbonate-hosted,strata-bound and epigenetic deposit that derived ore-forming materials from a mixed source of the underlying Porterozoic basements and the Sinian hosting carbonates.     

A Study of Ore-forming Fluids in the Shimensi Tungsten Deposit, Dahutang Tungsten Polymetallic Ore Field, Jiangxi Province, China

The Dahutang tungsten polymetallic ore field is located north of the Nanling W-Sn polymetallic metallogenic belt and south of the Middle—Lower Yangtze River Valley Cu-Mo-Au-Fe porphyry-skarn belt.It is a newly discovered ore field,and probably represents the largest tungsten mineralization district in the world.The Shimensi deposit is one of the mineral deposits in the Dahutang ore field,and is associated with Yanshanian granites intruding into a Neoproterozoic granodiorite batholith.On the basis of geologic studies,this paper presents new petrographic,microthermometric,laser Raman spectroscopic and hydrogen and oxygen isotopic studies of fluid inclusions from the Shimensi deposit.The results show that there are three types of fluid inclusions in quartz from various mineralization stages:liquid-rich two-phase fluid inclusions,vapor-rich two-phase fluid inclusions,and three-phase fluid inclusions containing a solid crystal,with the vast majority being liquid-rich two-phase fluid inclusions.In addition,melt and melt-fluid inclusions were also found in quartz from pegmatoid bodies in the margin of the Yanshanian intrusion.The homogenization temperatures of liquid-rich two-phase fluid inclusions in quartz range from 162 to 363℃ and salinities are 0.5wt%-9.5wt%NaCI equivalent.From the early to late mineralization stages,with the decreasing of the homogenization temperature,the salinity also shows a decreasing trend.The ore-forming fluids can be approximated by a NaCl-H_2O fluid system,with small amounts of volatile components including CO_2,CH_4 and N_2,as suggested by Laser Raman spectroscopic analyses.The hydrogen and oxygen isotope data show that δ5D_(V-smow) values of bulk fluid inclusions in quartz from various mineralization stages vary from-63.8‰ to-108.4‰,and the δ~(18)O_(H2O) values calculated from the δ~(18)O_(V-)smow values of quartz vary from-2.28‰ to 7.21‰.These H-O isotopic data are interpreted to indicate that the ore-forming fluids are mainly composed of magmatic water in the early stage,and meteoric water was added and participated in mineralization in the late stage.Integrating the geological characteristics and analytical data,we propose that the ore-forming fluids of the Shimensi deposit were mainly derived from Yanshanian granitic magma,the evolution of which resulted in highly differentiated melt,as recorded by melt and melt-fluid inclusions in pegmatoid quartz,and high concentrations of metals in the fluids.Cooling of the ore-forming fluids and mixing with meteoric water may be the key factors that led to mineralization in the Dahutang tungsten polymetallic ore field.     

Geochemical Characteristics and Sources of Ore-forming Fluids of the Mayuan Pb-Zn Deposit, Nanzheng, Shaanxi, China

The Mayuan stratabound Pb-Zn deposit in Nanzheng,Shaanxi Province,is located in the northern margin of the Yangtze Plate,in the southern margin of the Beiba Arch.The orebodies are stratiform and hosted in breciated dolostone of the Sinian Dengying Formation.The ore minerals are primarily sphalerite and galena,and the gangue minerals comprise of dolomite,quartz,barite,calcite and solid bitumen.Fluid inclusions from ore-stage quartz and calcite have homogenization tempreatures from 98 to 337℃ and salinities from 7.7 wt%to 22.2 wt%(NaCl equiv.).The vapor phase of the inclusions is mainly composed of CH_4 with minor CO_2 and H_2S.The δD_(fluid) values of fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite display a range from-68‰ to-113‰(SMOW),and the δ~(18)O_(fluid)values calculated from δ~(18)O_(quartz) and δ~(18)O_(calcite) values range from 4.5‰ to 16.7‰(SMOW).These data suggest that the ore-forming fluids may have been derived from evaporitic sea water that had reacted with organic matter.The δ~(13)C_(CH4) values of CH_4 in fluid inclusions range from-37.2‰ to-21.0‰(PDB),suggesting that the CH_4 in the ore-forming fluids was mainly derived from organic matter.This,together with the abundance of solid bitumen in the ores,suggest that organic matter played an important role in mineralization,and that the thermochemical sulfate reduction(TSR) was the main mechanism of sulfide precipitation.The Mayuan Pb-Zn deposit is a carbonate-hosted epigenetic deposit that may be classified as a Mississippi Valley type(MVT) deposit.     

Ore Genesis of the Lunwei Granite‐Related Scheelite Deposit in the Wuyi Metallogenic Belt,Southeast China: Constraints from Geochronology,Fluid Inclusions,and H–O–S Isotopes

A granite‐related scheelite deposit has been recently discovered in the Wuyi metallogenic belt of southeast China. The veinlet–disseminated scheelite occurs mainly in the inner and outer contact zones of the porphyritic biotite granite, spatially associated with potassic feldspathization and silicification. Re–Os dating of molybdenite intergrowths with scheelite yield a well‐constrained isochron age of 170.4 ± 1.2 Ma, coeval with the LA–MC–ICP–MS concordant zircon age of porphyritic biotite granite (167.6 ± 2.2 Ma), indicating that the Lunwei W deposit was formed in the Middle Jurassic (~170 Ma). We identify three stages of ore formation (from early to late): (I) the quartz–K‐feldspar–scheelite stage; (II) the quartz–polymetallic sulfide stage; and (III) the quartz–carbonate stage. Based on petrographic observations and microthermometric criteria, the fluid inclusions in the scheelite and quartz are determined to be mainly aqueous two‐phase (liquid‐rich and gas‐rich) fluid inclusions, with minor gas‐pure and CO₂‐bearing fluid inclusions. Ore‐forming fluids in the Lunwei W deposit show a successive decrease in temperature and salinity from Stage I to Stage III. The homogenization temperature decreases from an average of 299 °C in Stage I, through 251 °C in Stage II, to 212 °C in Stage III, with a corresponding change in salinity from an average of 5.8 wt.%, through 5.2 wt.%, to 3.4 wt.%. The ore‐forming fluids have intermediate to low temperatures and low salinities, belonging to the H₂O–NaCl ± CO₂ system. The δ¹⁸O_H2O values vary from 1.8‰ to 3.3‰, and the δD_V‐SMOW values vary from –66‰ to –76‰, suggesting that the ore‐forming fluid was primarily of magmatic water mixed with various amounts of meteoric water. Sulfur isotope compositions of sulfides (δ³⁴S ranging from –1.1‰ to +2.4‰) and Re contents in molybdenite (1.45–19.25 µg/g, mean of 8.97 µg/g) indicate that the ore‐forming materials originated mainly in the crust. The primary mechanism for mineral deposition in the Lunwei W deposit was a decrease in temperature and the mixing of magmatic and meteoric water. The Lunwei deposit can be classified as a porphyry‐type scheelite deposit and is a product of widespread tungsten mineralization in South China. We summarize the geological characteristics of typical W deposits (the Xingluokeng, Shangfang, and Lunwei deposits) in the Wuyi metallogenic belt and suggest that porphyry and skarn scheelite deposits should be considered the principal exploration targets in this area.     

Fluid Inclusions and Stable Isotopic Characteristics of the Yaoling Tungsten Deposit in South China: Metallogenetic Constraints

The Yaoling tungsten deposit is a typical wolframite quartz vein‐type tungsten deposit in the South China metallogenic province. The wolframite‐bearing quartz veins mainly occur in Cambrian to Ordovician host rocks or in Mesozoic granitic rocks and are controlled by the west‐north‐west trending extensional faults. The ore mineralization mainly comprises wolframite and variable amounts of molybdenite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, fluorite, and tourmaline. Hydrothermal alteration is well developed at the Yaoling tungsten deposit, including greisenization, silicification, fluoritization, and tourmalinization. Three types of primary/pseudosecondary fluid inclusions have been identified in vein quartz, which is intimately intergrown with wolframite. These include two‐phase liquid‐rich aqueous inclusions (type I), two‐ or three‐phase CO₂‐rich inclusions (type II), and type III daughter mineral‐bearing multiphase high‐salinity aqueous inclusions. Microthermometric measurements reveal consistent moderate homogenization temperatures (peak values from 200 to 280°C), and low to high salinities (1.3–39 wt % NaCl equiv.) for the type I, type II, and type III inclusions, where the CO₂‐rich type II inclusions display trace amounts of CH₄ and N₂. The ore‐forming fluids are far more saline than those of other tungsten deposits reported in South China. The estimated maximum trapping pressure of the ore‐forming fluids is about 1230–1760 bar, corresponding to a lithostatic depth of 4.0–5.8 km. The δD_H2O isotopic compositions of the inclusion fluid ranges from ?66.7 to ?47.8‰, with δ¹⁸O_H2O values between 1.63 and 4.17‰, δ¹³C values of ?6.5–0.8‰, and δ³⁴S values between ?1.98 and 1.92‰, with an average of ?0.07‰. The stable isotope data imply that the ore‐forming fluids of the Yaoling tungsten deposit were mainly derived from crustal magmatic fluids with some involvement of meteoric water. Fluid immiscibility and fluid–rock interaction are thought to have been the main mechanisms for tungsten precipitation at Yaoling.     

Mineralization Styles and Genesis of the Yinkeng Au-Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu-Mn Polymetallic Orefield, Southern Jiangxi Province, SE China: Evidence from Geology, Fluid Inclusions, Isotopes and Chronology

The Yinkeng orefield in Yudu County, Jiangxi Province, SE China, is a zone of concentrated Au-Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu-Mn polymetallic ores. Based on summing up basic geology and ore geology of the orefield, the polymetallic deposits in the orefield have been divided into seven major substyles according to their occurring positions and control factors. The ore-forming fluid inclusion styles in the orefield include those of two-phase fluid, liquid CO2-bearing three-phase and daughter mineral-bearing multi-phase. The homogenization temperatures range from 382o to 122oC, falling into five clusters of 370o to 390o, 300o to 360o, 230o to 300o, 210o to 290o and 120o to 200o, and the clusters of 300o to 360o, 230o to 300o and 120o to 200o are three major mineralization stages, with fluid salinity peaks from 4.14% to 7.31%, 2.07% to 7.31% and 0.53% to 3.90%, respectively. The ore-forming fluids are mainly type of NaCl-H2O with medium to high density(0.74–1.02 g/cm3), or CO2-bearing NaCl-H2O with medium to low density(0.18–0.79 g/cm3). The fluid salinity and density both show a decline tendency with decreasing temperature. According to the measurement and calculation of Hand O-isotopic compositions in the quartz of the quartz-sulfide veins, δDV-SMOW of the ore-forming fluid is from-84‰ to-54‰, and δ18OV-SMOW of that is from 6.75‰ to 9.21‰, indicating a magmatic fluid. The δ34SV-CDT of sulfides in the ores fall into two groups, one is from-4.4‰ to 2.2‰ with average of-1.42‰, and the other from 18.8‰ to 21.6‰ with average of 19.8‰. The S-isotopic data shows one peak at-4.4‰ to 2.2‰(meaning-1.42‰) suggesting a simple magmatic sulfur source. The ore Pbisotopic ratios are 206Pb/204Pb from 17.817 to 17.983, 207Pb/204Pb from 15.470 to 15.620 and 208Pb/204Pb from 38.072 to 38.481, indicating characteristics of mantle-derived lead. The data show that the major ore deposits in the orefield have a magmatic-hydrothermal genesis and that the SHRIMP zircon age of the granodiorite porphyry, closely related to the mineralization, is 151.2±4.2 Ma(MSWD = 1.3), which can represent the formation ages of the ores and intrusion rocks. The study aids understanding of the ore-forming processes of the major metallic ore deposits in the orefield.     

Genesis of the Bangbu Orogenic Gold Deposit,Tibet: Evidence from Fluid Inclusion,Stable Isotopes,and Ar-Ar Geochronology

The Bangbu gold deposit is a large orogenic gold deposit in Tibet formed during the AlpineHimalayan collision. Ore bodies(auriferous quartz veins) are controlled by the E-W-trending Qusong-Cuogu-Zhemulang brittle-ductile shear zone. Quartz veins at the deposit can be divided into three types: pre-metallogenic hook-like quartz veins, metallogenic auriferous quartz veins, and postmetallogenic N-S quartz veins. Four stages of mineralization in the auriferous quartz veins have been identified:(1) Stage S1 quartz+coarse-grained sulfides,(2) Stage S2 gold+fine-grained sulfides,(3) Stage S3 quartz+carbonates, and(4) Stage S4 quartz+ greigite. Fluid inclusions indicate the oreforming fluid was CO_2-N_2-CH_4 rich with homogenization temperatures of 170–261°C, salinities 4.34–7.45 wt% Na Cl equivalent. δ~(18)Ofluid(3.98‰–7.18‰) and low δDV-SMOW(-90‰ to-44‰) for auriferous quartz veins suggest ore-forming fluids were mainly metamorphic in origin, with some addition of organic matter. Quartz vein pyrite has δ~(34)SV-CDT values of 1.2‰–3.6‰(an average of 2.2‰), whereas pyrite from phyllite has δ~(34)SV-CDT 5.7‰–9.9‰(an average of 7.4‰). Quartz vein pyrites yield 206Pb/204 Pb ratios of 18.662–18.764, 207Pb/204 Pb 15.650–15.683, and ~(208)Pb/204 Pb 38.901–39.079. These isotopic data indicate Bangbu ore-forming materials were probably derived from the Langjiexue accretionary wedge. 40Ar/39 Ar ages for sericite from auriferous sulfide-quartz veins yield a plateau age of 49.52 ± 0.52 Ma, an isochron age of 50.3 ± 0.31 Ma, suggesting that auriferous veins were formed during the main collisional period of the Tibet-Himalayan orogen(~65–41 Ma).     

Fluid Inclusion and Carbon-Oxygen Isotope Studies of the Hujiayu Cu Deposit, Zhongtiao Mountains, China: Implications for Syn-metamorphic Copper Remobilization

The Hujiayu Cu deposit,representative of the "HuBi-type" Cu deposits in the Zhongtiao Mountains district in the southern edge of the North China Craton,is primarily hosted in graphitebearing schists and carbonate rocks.The ore minerals comprise mainly chalcopyrite,with minor sphalerite,siegenite[(Co,Ni)_3S_4],and clausthalite[Pb(S,Se)].The gangue minerals are mainly quartz and dolomite,with minor albite.Four fluid inclusion types were recognized in the chalcopyrite-pyrite-dolomite-quartz veins,including CO_2-rich inclusions(type Ⅰ),low-salinity,liquid-dominated,biphase aqueous inclusions(type Ⅱ),solid-bearing aqueous inclusions(type Ⅲ),and solid-bearing aqueous-carbonic inclusions(type Ⅳ).Type I inclusion can be further divided into two sub-types,i.e.,monophase CO_2 inclusions(type Ⅰa) and biphase CO_2-rich inclusions(with a visible aqueous phase),and type Ⅲ inclusion is divided into a subtype with a halite daughter mineral(type Ⅲa) and a subtype with multiple solids(type Ⅲb).Various fluid inclusion assemblages(FIAs) were identified through petrographic observations,and were classified into four groups.The group-1 FIA,consisting of monophase CO_2 inclusions(type Ⅰa),homogenized into the liquid phase in a large range of temperatures from-1 to 28℃,suggesting post-entrapment modification.The group-2 FIA consists of type Ⅰb,Ⅲb and Ⅳ inclusions,and is interpreted to reflect fluid immiscibility.The group-3 FIA comprises type Ⅱ and Ⅲa inclusions,and the group-4FIA consists of type Ⅱ inclusions with consistent phase ratios.The group-1 and group-2 FIAs are interpreted to be entrapped during mineralization,whereas group-3 and group-4 FIAs probably represent the post-mineralization fluids.The solid CO_2 melting temperatures range from-60.6 to56.6℃ and from-66.0 to-63.4℃ for type Ⅰa and type Ⅳ inclusions,respectively.The homogenization temperatures for type Ⅱ inclusions range from 132 to 170℃ for group-3 FIAs and115 to 219℃ for group-4 FIAs.The halite melting temperatures range from 530 to 562℃ for typeⅢ b and Ⅳ inclusions,whereas those for type Ⅲa inclusions range from 198 to 398℃.Laser Raman and SEM-EDS results show that the gas species in fluid inclusions are mainly CO_2 with minor CH_4,and the solids are dominated by calcite and halite.The calcite in the hosting marble and dolomite in the hydrothermal veins have δ~(13)C_(V-pdb) values of-0.2 to 1.2‰ and-1.2 to-6.3‰,and δ~(18)O_(v-smow) values of 14.0 to 20.8 ‰ and 13.2 to 14.3‰,respectively.The fluid inclusion and carbon-oxygen isotope data suggest that the ore-forming fluids were probably derived from metamorphic fluids,which had reacted with organic matter in sedimentary rocks or graphite and undergone phase separation at 1.4-1.8 kbar and 230-240℃,after peak metamorphism.It is proposed that the Hujiayu Cu deposit consists of two mineralization stages.The early stage mineralization,characterized by disseminated and veinlet copper sulfides,probably took place in an environment similar to sediment-hosted stratiform copper mineralization.Ore minerals formed in this precursor mineralization stage were remobilized and enriched in the late metamorphic hydrothermal stage,leading to the formation of thick quartz-dolomite-sulfides veins.     

Geological and Geochemical Characteristics of Gold Mineralization in the Salu Bulo Prospect,Sulawesi, Indonesia

The Salu Bulo prospect is one of the gold prospects in the Awak Mas project in the central part of the western province, Sulawesi, Indonesia. The gold mineralization is hosted by the meta‐sedimentary rocks intercalated with the meta‐volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of the Latimojong Metamorphic Complex. The ores are approximately three meters thick, consisting of veins, stockwork, and breccias. The veins can be classified into three stages, namely, early, main, and late stages, and gold mineralization is related to the main stage. The mineral assemblage of the matrix of breccia and the veins are both composed of quartz, carbonate (mainly ankerite), and albite. High‐grade gold ores in the Salu Bulo prospect are accompanied by intense alteration, such as carbonatization, albitization, silicification, and sulfidation along the main stage veins and breccia. Alteration mineral assemblage includes ankerite ± calcite, quartz, albite, and pyrite along with minor sericite. Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral that is spatially related to native gold and electrum (<2–42 μm in size). It is more abundant as dissemination in the altered host rocks than those in veins. This suggests that water–rock interaction played a role to precipitate pyrite and Au in the Salu Bulo prospect. The Au contents of intensely altered host rocks and ores have positive correlations with Ag, Ni, Mo, and Na. Fluid inclusions in the veins of the main stage and the matrix of breccia are mainly two‐phase liquid‐rich inclusions with minor two‐phase, vapor‐rich, and single‐phase liquid or vapor inclusions. CO₂ and N₂ gases are detected in the fluid inclusions by Laser Raman microspectrometry. Fluid boiling probably occurred when the fluid was trapped at approximately 120–190 m below the paleo water table. δ¹⁸O_SMOW values of fluid, +5.8 and +7.6‰, calculated from δ¹⁸O_SMOW of quartz from the main stage vein indicate oxygen isotopic exchange with wall rocks during deep circulation. δ³⁴S_CDT of pyrite narrowly ranges from ?2.0 to +3.4‰, suggesting a single source of sulfur. Gold mineralization in the Salu Bulo prospect occurred in an epithermal condition, after the metamorphism of the host rocks. It formed at a relatively shallow depth from fluids with low to moderate salinity (3.0–8.5 wt% NaCl equiv.). The temperature and pressure of ore formation range from 190 to 210°C and 1.2 to 1.9 MPa, respectively.     

Conceptual model for early diagenetic chert and dolomite, Amuri Limestone Group, north-eastern South Island, New Zealand

The Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene, dominantly micritic, Amuri Limestone Group (ALG) was deposited in an approximately NW trending trough, in eastern Marlborough, New Zealand. The ALG comprises: the Mead Hill Formation; the Teredo, Lower and Middle Limestone formations; and the Upper and Lower Marl formations. Chert and dolomite are concentrated in the Mead Hill Formation, which contains five of six recognized diagenetic zones: Zone I at the base of the ALG consists almost entirely of chert; Zone II consists solely of chert and dolomite; Zone III comprises chert and limestone; Zone IV is composed of chert plus dolomite; Zone V is a chertified mudstone; and the minor amounts of chert found in the Middle Limestone Formation comprise Zone VI. With the exception of Zones IV and V, chert decreases stratigraphically upwards and away from the basin centre. All the dolomites are composed of <1 mm diameter rhombohedra in discontinuous beds and lenses. Generally Ca-rich, and non- to slightly ferroan, the dolomite contains approximately 500–900 ppm Mn and 200–400 ppm Sr. δ¹³C values average 1–2%_PDB with δ¹⁸O ratios of about -4%_PDB. Mass balance calculations indicate that the Mg²⁺ for dolomitization was derived from sea water. Sr, Fe and Mn concentrations are interpreted as indicating dolomite formation in the marine environment, with no influence from meteoric waters. The intimate association with pyrite implies dolomite formation in association with sulphate reduction, in the upper sediment column. δ¹⁸O data show that the bulk of the dolomite formed at temperatures below 50°C. All chert samples contain in excess of 90 wt% SiO₂, about 1 wt% Al₂O₃ and 1 wt% from losses on ignition. Generally all other major elements total less than 2 wt% oxide. δ¹⁸O values range from 26·8 to 29·0%_SMOW. Chert chemistry is consistent with the replacement of host carbonate and expulsion of carbonate-bound components from the site of chertification, and the effective dilution by SiO₂ of non-carbonate-bound insoluble residues. δ¹⁸O data indicate that chert formed in fluids of similar composition and temperature as the dolomite. The abundance of disseminated pyrite in cherts implies an association with sulphate reduction. Silica for chertification is thought to have initially come from dissolution of siliceous organisms. However, there is insufficient biogenic silica available to form the volumes of chert observed. It is suggested that the bulk of the silica came from SiO₂-rich pore waters generated by clay mineral reactions in the thick underlying mudstones. The ALG compacted down through these pore waters. Chert and dolomite nucleation are considered to have been penecontemporaneous. Dolomitization was initially probably the faster process, continuing as long as sulphate reduction prevailed and there was an adequate supply of Mg²⁺. The nucleation of chert, although initially slower (probably due to a relatively lower initial SiO₂ supply), continued after cessation of dolomitization to the extent of completely chertifying the dolomite intercrystalline matrix. The amount of chertification decreased progressively as SiO₂ supplies diminished, both stratigraphically upwards and away from the basin centre.     

四川盆地东南地区林1井灯影组鞍形白云石成因及其意义

对四川盆地东南地区林1井上震旦统灯影组鞍形白云石的岩相学特征和碳、氧、锶同位素特征及流体包裹体成分与温度进行研究,认为它属热液成因。研究区热液活动在岩相学上表现为充填状鞍形白云石,发育鞍形白云石线状充填晶洞。鞍形白云石共生矿物包括石英、沥青等。鞍形白云石δ18O值和δ13C值异常偏负,87Sr/86Sr值异常偏高,与围岩差异明显。鞍形白云石原生流体包裹体均一温度为270～320℃,明显超过了该井最高埋藏温度;流体包裹体的气相部分以CO2、CH4和N2为主,液相部分以H2O和CO2为主。这些特征表明,形成鞍形白云石的流体来自于基底的热液,灯影组白云岩受热液溶蚀改造而发育热液改造型白云岩储层,并有过油气成藏过程。     

Fluid Inclusions and Hydrogen,Oxygen, Sulfur Isotopes of Nuri Cu‐W‐Mo Deposit in the Southern Gangdese,Tibet

The Nuri Cu‐W‐Mo deposit is located in the southern subzone of the Cenozoic Gangdese Cu‐Mo metallogenic belt. The intrusive rocks exposed in the Nuri ore district consist of quartz diorite, granodiorite, monzogranite, granite porphyry, quartz diorite porphyrite and granodiorite porphyry, all of which intrude in the Cretaceous strata of the Bima Group. Owing to the intense metasomatism and hydrothermal alteration, carbonate rocks of the Bima Group form stratiform skarn and hornfels. The mineralization at the Nuri deposit is dominated by skarn, quartz vein and porphyry type. Ore minerals are chalcopyrite, pyrite, molybdenite, scheelite, bornite and tetrahedrite, etc. The oxidized orebodies contain malachite and covellite on the surface. The mineralization of the Nuri deposit is divided into skarn stage, retrograde stage, oxide stage, quartz‐polymetallic sulfide stage and quartz‐carbonate stage. Detailed petrographic observation on the fluid inclusions in garnet, scheelite and quartz from the different stages shows that there are four types of primary fluid inclusions: two‐phase aqueous inclusions, daughter mineral‐bearing multiphase inclusions, CO₂‐rich inclusions and single‐phase inclusions. The homogenization temperature of the fluid inclusions are 280°C–386°C (skarn stage), 200°C–340°C (oxide stage), 140°C–375°C (quartz‐polymetallic sulfide stage) and 160°C–280°C (quartz‐carbonate stage), showing a temperature decreasing trend from the skarn stage to the quartz‐carbonate stage. The salinity of the corresponding stages are 2.9%–49.7 wt% (NaCl) equiv., 2.1%–7.2 wt% (NaCl) equiv._, 2.6%–55.8 wt% (NaCl) equiv. and 1.2%–15.3 wt% (NaCl) equiv., respectively. The analyses of CO₂‐rich inclusions suggest that the ore‐forming pressures are 22.1 M Pa–50.4 M Pa, corresponding to the depth of 0.9 km–2.2 km. The Laser Raman spectrum of the inclusions shows the fluid compositions are dominated in H₂O, with some CO₂ and very little CH₄, N₂, etc. δD values of garnet are between ?114.4‰ and ?108.7‰ and δ¹⁸O_H2O between 5.9‰ and 6.7‰; δD of scheelite range from ?103.2‰ to ?101.29‰ and δ¹⁸O_H2O values between 2.17‰ and 4.09‰; δD of quartz between ?110.2‰ and ?92.5‰ and δ¹⁸O_H2O between ?3.5‰ and 4.3‰. The results indicate that the fluid came from a deep magmatic hydrothermal system, and the proportion of meteoric water increased during the migration of original fluid. The δ³⁴S values of sulfides, concentrated in a rage between ?0.32‰ to 2.5‰, show that the sulfur has a homogeneous source with characteristics of magmatic sulfur. The characters of fluid inclusions, combined with hydrogen‐oxygen and sulfur isotopes data, show that the ore‐forming fluids of the Nuri deposit formed by a relatively high temperature, high salinity fluid originated from magma, which mixed with low temperature, low salinity meteoric water during the evolution. The fluid flow through wall carbonate rocks resulted in the formation of layered skarn and generated CO₂ or other gases. During the reaction, the ore‐forming fluid boiled and produced fractures when the pressure exceeded the overburden pressure. Themeteoric water mixed with the ore‐forming fluid along the fractures. The boiling changed the pressure and temperature, oxygen fugacity, physical and chemical conditions of the whole mineralization system. The escape of CO₂ from the fluid by boiling resulted in scheelite precipitation. The fluid mixing and boiling reduced the solubility of metal sulfides and led the precipitation of chalcopyrite, molybdenite, pyrite and other sulfide.     

Stable isotope evidence for the origin of diagenetic carbonate minerals from the Lower Jurassic Inmar Formation, southern Israel

The oxygen isotope compositions of diagenetic carbonate minerals from the Lower Jurassic Inmar Formation, southern Israel, have been used to identify porewater types during diagenesis. Changes in porewater composition can be related to major geological events within southern Israel. In particular, saline brines played an important role in late (Pliocene-Pleistocene) dolomitization of these rocks. Diagenetic carbonates included early siderite (δ¹⁸O_SMOW=+24.4 to +26.5‰δ¹³C_PDB=?1.1 to +0.8‰), late dolomite, ferroan dolomite and ankerite (δ¹⁸O_SMOW=+18.4 to +25.8‰; δ¹³C_PDB=?2.1 to +0.2‰), and calcite (δ¹⁸O_SMOW=+21.3 to +32.6‰; δ¹³C_PDB=?4.2 to + 3.2‰). The petrographic and isotopic results suggest that siderite formed early in the diagenetic history at shallow depths. The dolomitic phases formed at greater depths late in diagenesis. Crystallization of secondary calcite spans early to late diagenesis, consistent with its large range in isotopic values. A strong negative correlation exists between burial depth (temperature) and the oxygen isotopic compositions of the dolomitic cements. In addition, the δ¹⁸O values of the dolomitic phases in the northern Negev and Judea Mountains are in isotopic equilibrium with present formation waters. This behaviour suggests that formation of secondary dolomite post-dates the tectonic activity responsible for the present relief of southern Israel (Upper Miocene to Pliocene) and that the dolomite crystallized from present formation waters. Such is not the case in the Central Negev. In that locality, present formation waters have much lower salinities and δ¹⁸O values, indicating invasion of freshwater, and are out of isotopic equilibrium with secondary dolomite. Recharge of the Inmar Formation by meteoric water in the Central Negev occurred in the Pleistocene, and halted formation of dolomite.     

Origin of spheroidal chert nodules, Drunka Formation (Lower Eocene), Egypt

Chert nodules of the Drunka Formation (Lower Eocene) are mostly spherical, have diameters from 40 to 120 cm, are quasi-uniformly spaced 2–3 m apart in the plane of bedding, have concentric internal structure and, except for rare small (<6 cm) solid chert nodules, are less than 85% chertified. Nodules formed after moderate alteration of limestone by meteoric water (δ¹⁸O_calcite = –4 to –8‰) at shallow (<100 m) burial depths; more extensive alteration of limestone (δ¹⁸O = –10 to –16‰) by meteoric water followed nodule growth. Chertification was by low-temperature meteoric water (δ¹⁸O_quartz = +18‰ in margins to +22‰ in nuclei) at shallow burial depths. Meteoric water may have invaded the Drunka Formation in association with shelf progradation during the Early Eocene, or during the development of a Middle Eocene unconformity. Replacement of carbonate mud by microcrystalline quartz was the dominant chertification process, but fossils were replaced in part by fine-grained equant megaquartz, quartzine and chalcedony; the last of these occurs in places as beekite. Opal A-secreting marine organisms are the inferred source of silica, but none are preserved. There is no compelling evidence of an opal-CT precursor, so quartz may have formed by direct precipitation. Self-organization processes of enigmatic character established the spacing pattern of the nodules and also the Liesegang-banded internal structure of the chert nodules. Nodules grew chiefly by diffusive supply of silica, although one locality has elongate nodules that grew when there was some porewater advection. Chertification patterns and δ¹⁸O values of both calcite and quartz indicate that nodule growth was complex and variable. Some nodules probably grew from the centre outwards. Many nodules, however, initially grew simultaneously across the entire nodule, but late-stage growth was predominantly at the outer margins or at selective internal sites.     

Hydrothermal Dolomite in the Upper Sinian (Upper Proterozoic) Dengying Formation,East Sichuan Basin,China

Hydrothermal Dolomite （HTD） is present in the Upper Sinian （Upper Proterozoic） Dengying Formation, east Sichuan Basin, China. The strata are comprised by primary dolomite. The HTD has various textures, including zebra dolomite, subhorizontal sheet-like cavities filled by saddle dolomite and breccias cemented by saddle dolomites as well occur as a fill of veins and fractures. Also co-occur MVT type lead-zinc ores in the study area. The δ13C and δ18O isotopes of HTD in the Upper Sinian Dengying Formation are lighter than those of the host rocks, while STSr/86Sr is higher. The apparent difference in carbon, oxygen and strontium isotopes, especially the large difference in S7Sr/S6Sr isotopes ratio indicate crystallization from hot basinal and/or hydrothermal fluids. Saddle dolomite was precipitated at temperatures of 270-320℃. The diagenetic parasequences of mineral assemblage deposited in the Dengying Formation are： （1） dolomite host rock →sphalerite-galena-barite-fluorite; （2） dolomite host rock →saddle dolomite →quartz; （3） dolomite host rock →saddle dolomite→bitumen; （4） dolomite host rock →saddle dolomite →barite. The mean chemical composition of the host dolomite matrix and HTD didn＇t change much during hydrothermal process. The fluids forming the HTDs in the Dengying Formation were mixtures of freshwater from the unconformity at the top of Sinian, fluids from diagenetic compaction and hydrocarbon generation ＆ expulsion from the Lower Cambrian Niutitang Formation mudstones or the Doushantuo Formation silty mudstones, and hydrothermal fluids from the basement. The hydrocarbon reservoirs associated with the HTD were mostly controlled by the basement faults and fractures and karsting processes at the unconformity separating Sinian and Cambrian strata. The hydrocarbon storage spaces of HTD included dissolved cavities and intercrystalline pores. Dissolution cavities are extensive at the top of Dengying Formation, up to about 46m below the unconformity between Sinian an     

Origin of the Dachang gold deposit,NW China: constraints from H,O, S,and Pb isotope data

The Dachang gold deposit is located in the Late Triassic Songpan-Ganzi Fold Belt, NE Tibetan Plateau. Gold ore is concentrated as veins along secondary faults and fracture zones in the Bayan Har Group metaturbidites. No exposed felsic plutons are present in the vicinity of the deposit. The auriferous veins contain <15% sulphide minerals, mainly arsenopyrite, pyrite, and stibnite. Gold is commonly enclosed within arsenopyrite and pyrite. Typical alteration around the ore bodies includes silicification, sericitization, and weak carbonatization.

Gold-bearing quartz samples have δ¹⁸O values of 16.9–21.2‰ (V-SMOW) from which δ¹⁸O_H2O values of 6.2–9.6‰ can be calculated from the fluid inclusion temperatures (or 10.0 to 12.7‰ if we used the average arsenopyrite geothermometer temperature of 301°C). The δD values of fluid inclusions in quartz range from –90‰ to –72‰. δ³⁴S values of gold-bearing sulphides mainly range from –5.9‰ to –2.8‰ (V-CDT). Pyrite and arsenopyrite in ores have ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of 18.2888 to 18.4702, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of 15.5763 to 15.6712, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of 38.2298 to 38.8212. These isotopic compositions indicate that the ore-forming fluids were of metamorphic origin, and the S and Pb may have been derived from the host metaturbidites of the Bayan Har Group. The Dachang Au deposit has geological and geochemical features similar to orogenic gold deposits. We propose that the ores formed when the Songpan-Ganzi Fold Belt was intensely deformed by Late Triassic folding and thrusting. Large-scale thrusting resulted in regional allochthons of different scales, followed by secondary faults or fracture zones that controlled the ore bodies.     

Geochemical characteristics of gold mineralization of the Huai Kham On deposit,Sukhothai Fold Belt,Northern Thailand

The Huai Kham On gold deposit is located in the central part of the Sukhothai Fold Belt, northern Thailand. The Sukhothai Fold Belt represents an accretionary complex formed by subduction and collision between the Indochina and Sibumasu Terranes. There are many small gold deposits in the Sukhothai Fold Belt; however, the styles and formation environments of those gold deposits are not clear. The geology of the Huai Kham On deposit consists of volcanic and volcanosedimentary rocks, limestone, and low‐grade metamorphic rocks of Carboniferous to Triassic age. Gold‐bearing quartz veins are hosted by volcanic and volcanosedimentary rocks. The quartz veins can be divided into four stages. The mineral assemblage of the gold‐bearing quartz veins of Stages I and II comprises quartz, calcite, illite, pyrite, native gold, galena, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite. Quartz veins of Stage III consist of microcrystalline quartz, dolomite, calcite, pyrite, native gold, and chalcopyrite. Veins of Stage IV consist of calcite, dolomite, chlorite, and quartz. Fluid inclusions in quartz veins are classified into liquid‐rich two‐phase (Types I_A and I_B), carbonic‐aqueous (Type II), and carbonic (Type III) fluid inclusions. The homogenization temperatures of Types I_A and II fluid inclusions that are related to the gold‐bearing quartz veins from Stages I to III ranged from 240° to 280°C. The δ¹⁸O values of quartz veins of Stages I to III range from +12.9 to +13.4‰, suggesting the presence of a homogeneous hydrothermal solution without temperature variation such as a decrease of temperature during the formation of gold‐bearing quartz veins from Stages I to III in the Huai Kham On gold deposit. Based on the calculated formation temperature of 280°C, the δ¹⁸O values of the hydrothermal solution that formed the gold‐bearing quartz veins range from +3.2 to +3.7‰, which falls into the range of metamorphic waters. The gold‐bearing quartz veins of the Huai Kham On deposit are interpreted to be the products of metamorphic water.     

S, C, O, H Isotope Data and Noble Gas Studies of the Maoniuping LREE Deposit, Sichuan Province, China： A Mantle Connection for Mineralization

The Maoniuping REE deposit, located about 22 km to the southwest of Mianning, Sichuan Province, is the second largest light REE deposit in China, subsequent to the Bayan Obo Fe-Nb-REE deposit in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Tectonically, it is located in the transitional zone between the Panxi rift and the Longmenshan-Jinpingshan orogenic zone. It is a carbonatite vein-type deposit hosted in alkaline complex rocks. The bastnaesite-barite, bastnaesite-calcite, and bastnaesite-microcline lodes are the main three types of REE ore lodes. Among these, the first lode is distributed most extensively and its REE mineralization is the strongest. Theδ34Sv-CDT values of the barites in the ore of the deposit vary in a narrow range of +5.0 to +5.1‰in the bastnaesite-calcite lode and +3.3 to +5.9‰in the bastnaesite-barite lode, showing the isotopic characteristics of magma-derived sulfur. Theδ13Cv-PDB values and theδ518OV-SMOW values in the bastnaesite-calcite lode range from -3.9 to -6.9‰and from +7.3 to +9.7‰, respectively, which fall into the range of "primary carbonatites", showing that carbon and oxygen in the ores of the Maoniuping deposit were derived mainly from a deep source. Theδ13Cv-PDB values of fluid inclusions vary from -3.0 to -5.6‰, with -3.0 to -4.0‰in the bastnaesite-calcite lode and -3.0 to -5.6‰in the bastnaesite-barite lode, which show characteristics of mantle-derived carbon. TheδDv-SMOW values of fluid inclusions range from -57 to -88‰, with -63 to -86‰in the bastnaesite-calcite lode and -57 to -88‰in the bastnaesite-barite lode, which show characteristics of mantle-derived hydrogen. Theδ18OH2OV-SMOW values vary from +7.4 to +8.6‰in the bastnaesite calcite lode, and +6.7 to +7.8‰in the bastnaesite-barite lode, almost overlapping the range of +5.5 to +9.5‰for magmatic water. The 4He content, R/Ra ratios are (13.95 to 119.58×10-6 (cm3/g)STP and 0.02 to 0.11, respectively, and 40Ar/36Ar is 313±1 to 437±2. Considering the 4He increase caused by high contents of radioactive elements, a mantle-derived fluid probably exists in the inclusions in the fluorite, calcite and bastnaesite samples. The Maoniuping deposit and its associated carbonatite-alkaline complex were formed in 40.3 to 12.2 Ma according to K-Ar and U-Pb data. All these data suggest that large quantities of mantle fluids were involved in the metallogenic process of the Maoniuping REE deposit through a fault system.     

Fluid Inclusions,Stable Isotopes,and Geochronology of the Haobugao Lead‐Zinc Deposit,Inner Mongolia,China

The Haobugao deposit, located in the southern segment of the Great Xing'an Range, is a famous skarn‐related Pb‐Zn‐(Cu)‐(Fe) deposit in northern China. The results of our fluid inclusion research indicate that garnets of the early stage (I skarn stage) contain three types of fluid inclusions (consistent with the Mesozoic granites): vapor‐rich inclusions (type LV, with V_H2O/(V_H2O + L_H2O) < 50 vol %, and the majority are 5–25 vol %), liquid‐rich two‐phase aqueous inclusions (type VL, with V_H2O/(V_H2O + L_H2O) > 50 vol %, the majority are 60–80 vol %), and halite‐bearing multiphase inclusions (type SL). These different types of fluid inclusions are totally homogenized at similar temperatures (around 320–420°C), indicating that the ore‐forming fluids of the early mineralization stage may belong to a boiling fluid system. The hydrothermal fluids of the middle mineralization stage (II, magnetite‐quartz) are characterized by liquid‐rich two‐phase aqueous inclusions (type VL, homogenization temperatures of 309–439°C and salinities of 9.5–14.9 wt % NaCl eqv.) that coexist with vapor‐rich inclusions (type LV, homogenization temperatures of 284–365°C and salinities of 5.2–10.4 wt % NaCl eqv.). Minerals of the late mineralization stage (III sulfide‐quartz stage and IV sulfide‐calcite stage) only contain liquid‐rich aqueous inclusions (type VL). These inclusions are totally homogenized at temperatures of 145–240°C, and the calculated salinities range from 2.0 to 12.6 wt % NaCl eqv. Therefore, the ore‐forming fluids of the late stage are NaCl‐H₂O‐type hydrothermal solutions of low to medium temperature and low salinity. The δD values and calculated δ¹⁸O_SMOW values of ore‐forming fluids of the deposit are in the range of ?4.8 to 2.65‰ and ?127.3‰ to ?144.1‰, respectively, indicating that ore‐forming fluids of the Haobugao deposit originated from the mixing of magmatic fluid and meteoric water. The S‐Pb isotopic compositions of sulfides indicate that the ore‐forming materials are mainly derived from underlying magma. Zircon grains from the mineralization‐related granite in the mining area yield a weighted ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U mean age of 144.8 ±0.8 Ma, which is consistent with a molybdenite Re‐Os model age (140.3 ±3.4 Ma). Therefore, the Haobugao deposit formed in the Early Cretaceous, and it is the product of a magmatic hydrothermal system.     

Fluid Inclusions of Calcite and Sources of Ore-forming Fluids in the Huize Zn-Pb-(Ag-Ge) District, Yunnan, China

The Huize Zn-Pb- (Ag-Ge) district is a typical representative of the well-known medium-to large-sized carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb- (Ag-Ge) deposits, occurring in the Sichuan-Yunnan-Guizhou Pb-Zn Ore-forming Zone. Generally, fluid inclusions within calcite, one of the major gangue minerals, are dominated by two kinds of small (1-10 um) inclusions including pure-liquid and liquid. The inclusions exist in concentrated groups along the crystal planes of the calcite. The ore-forming fluids containing Pb and Zn, which belong to the Na+-K+-Ca2+-Cl--F--SO42- type, are characterized by temperatures of 164-221℃, medium salinity in 5-10.8 wt% NaCl, and medium pressure at 410×105 to 661×105 Pa. The contents of Na+-K+ and C1--F-, and ratios of Na+/K+-Cl-/F- in fluid inclusions present good linearity. The ratios of Na+/K+ (4.66-6.71) and Cl-/F- (18.21-31.04) in the fluid inclusions of calcite are relatively high, while those of Na+/K+ (0.29-5.69) and Cl-/F- (5.00-26.0) in the inclusions of sphalerite and pyrite are rela