Differences between CMIP6 and CMIP5 Models in Simulating Climate over China and the East Asian Monsoon

We compare the ability of coupled global climate models from the phases 5 and 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project(CMIP5 and CMIP6, respectively) in simulating the temperature and precipitation climatology and interannual variability over China for the period 1961–2005 and the climatological East Asian monsoon for the period1979–2005. All 92 models are able to simulate the geographical distribution of the above variables reasonably well.Compared with earlier CMIP5 models, current CMIP6 models have nationally weaker cold biases, a similar nationwide overestimation of precipitation and a weaker underestimation of the southeast–northwest precipitation gradient, a comparable overestimation of the spatial variability of the interannual variability, and a similar underestimation of the strength of winter monsoon over northern Asia. Pairwise comparison indicates that models have improved from CMIP5 to CMIP6 for climatological temperature and precipitation and winter monsoon but display little improvement for the interannual temperature and precipitation variability and summer monsoon. The ability of models relates to their horizontal resolutions in certain aspects. Both the multi-model arithmetic mean and median display similar skills and outperform most of the individual models in all considered aspects.     

Distribution of seasonal rainfall in the East Asian monsoon region

Summary ?This study deals with the climatological aspect of seasonal rainfall distribution in the East Asian monsoon region, which includes China, Korea and Japan. Rainfall patterns in these three countries have been investigated, but little attention has been paid to the linkages between them. This paper has contributed to the understanding of the inter-linkage of various sub-regions. Three datasets are used. One consists of several hundred gauges from China and South Korea. The second is based on the Climate Prediction Center (CPC) Merged Analysis of Precipitation (CMAP). The two sources of precipitation information are found to be consistent. The third dataset is the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis 850-hPa winds. The CMAP precipitation shows that the seasonal transition over East Asia from the boreal winter to the boreal summer monsoon component occurs abruptly in mid-May. From late March to early May, the spring rainy season usually appears over South China and the East China Sea, but it is not so pronounced in Japan. The summer monsoon rainy season over East Asia commonly begins from mid-May to late May along longitudes of eastern China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan. A strong quasi-20-day sub-seasonal oscillation in the precipitation appears to be dominant during this rainy season. The end date of the summer monsoon rainy season in eastern China and Japan occurs in late July, while the end date in the Korean Peninsula is around early August. The autumn rainy season in the Korean Peninsula has a major range from mid-August to mid-September. In southern China, the autumn rainy season prevails from late August to mid-October but a short autumn rainy season from late August to early September is noted in the lower part of the Yangtze River. In Japan, the autumn rainy season is relatively longer from mid-September to late October. The sub-seasonal rainfall oscillation in Korea, eastern China and Japan are explained by, and comparable to, the 850-hPa circulation. The strong westerly frontal zone can control the location of the Meiyu, the Changma, and the Baiu in East Asia. The reason that the seasonal sea surface temperature change in the northwestern Pacific plays a critical role in the northward advance of the onset of the summer monsoon rainfall over East Asia is also discussed. Received October 5, 2001; revised April 23, 2002; accepted May 11, 2002     

Peculiar Temporal Structure of the South China Sea Summer Monsoon

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Peculiar temporal structure of the south china sea summer monsoon

Beijing located at the junction of four major components of the Asian-Australia monsoon system (the Indian, the western North Pacific, the East Asian subtropical, and the Indonesian-Australian monsoons), the monsoon cli-mate over the South China Sea (SCS) exhibits some unique features. Evidences are presented in this paper to reveal and document the following distinctive features in the temporal structure of the SCS summer monsoon:(1) pronounced monsoon singularities in the lower tropospheric monsoon flows which include the pre-onset and withdrawal easterly surges and the southwesterly monsoon bursts at Julian pentad 34-35 (June 15-24) and pentad 46-47 (August 14-23);(2) four prominent subseasonal cycles (alternative occurrences of climatological active and break monsoons);(3) considerably larger year-to-year variations in convective activity on intraseasonal time scale compared to those over the Bay of Bengal and the Philippine Sea;(4) the redness of the climatological mean spectrum of precipitation / deep convection on synoptic to intraseasona] time scales in the central SCS;(5) a remarkable asymmetry in the seasonal transitions between summer and winter monsoons and an extremely abrupt mid-May transition (the outburst of monsoon rain and the sudden switch in tie lower troposphere winds from an easterly to a westerly regime);(6) the bi-modal interannual variation of summer monsoon onset (normal and delayed modes).In addition, the monsoon rainfall displays enormous east-west gradient over the central SCS. Possible causes for these features are discussed. A number of specific science questions concerning some of the peculiar features are raised for the forthcoming SCS monsoon experiment to address     

青藏高原冬春季积雪异常对中国春夏季降水的影响

利用1956年12月～1998年12月共42a，青藏高原及其附近地区78个积雪观测站的雪深和我国160站月降水的距平资料，分析了其气候特征，并用SVD方法分析了冬春季积雪异常与春夏季我国降水异常的关系。用区域气候模式RegCM2模拟了青藏高原积雪异常的气候效应并检验了诊断分析的结果。分析表明，雪深异常，尤其是冬季雪深异常是影响中国降水的一个因子。研究证明，高原冬季雪深异常对后期中国区域降水的影响比春季雪深异常的影响更为重要。数值模拟的结果表明，高原雪深和雪盖的正异常推迟了东亚夏季风的爆发日期，减弱了季风强度，造成华南和华北降水减少，而长江和淮河流域降水增加。冬季雪深异常比冬季雪盖异常和春季雪深异常对降水的影响更为显著。机理分析指出，高原及其邻近地区的积雪异常首先通过融雪改变土壤湿度和地表温度，从而改变了地面到大气的热量、水汽和辐射通量。由此所引起的大气环流变化又反过来影响下垫面的特征和通量输送。在湿土壤和大气之间，这样一种长时间的相互作用是造成后期气候变化的关键过程。与干土壤和大气的相互作用过程有本质差别。     

中国东部降水的气候模态及雨季划分

应用中国东部地面观测气候平均候降水量数据和谐波分析方法,研究了华南、长江中下游、淮河流域、华北四个区域降水的年变化特征,特别是夏季风降水的阶段性和区域特征,并对构成降水年变化的气候分量进行分析,将各区降水年变化分解为年循环模态、季节模态、季节内振荡和月内振荡四个气候模态。结果表明:不同模态间的相互调制对降水的阶段性和区域性具有重要影响,年循环是影响雨季的主要模态,季节和季节内振荡模态对决定主汛期起重要作用。基于气候模态划分中国东部雨季和主汛期,方法简单,结果客观合理。     

Different Impacts of Intraseasonal Oscillations on Precipitation in Southeast China between Early and Late Summers

This study investigates the influences of boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation (BSISO), which originates from the equatorial Indian Ocean and prevails over the Indo-Pacific region, on precipitation over Southeast China, including South China and Yangtze River Valley. The results indicate that the BSISO-related precipitation anomalies are remarkably different between early summer (May–June) and late summer (July–August). The BSISO-related precipitation anomalies tend to appear more northward in late summer in comparison with early summer. Accordingly, the BSISO is significantly related to precipitation anomalies over South China during many phases in early summer but related to very weak anomalies during all the phases in late summer. Such northward shifts of precipitation anomalies from early summer to late summer are clearest during phases 4 and 7, when the lower-tropospheric anticyclonic and cyclonic circulation anomalies dominate over the subtropical western North Pacific, respectively. Finally, we explain the differences between early and late summers through the seasonal northward migration of climatological equivalent potential temperature gradient, which is located in the South China during early summer but migrates northward to the YRV during late summer.     

RCP4.5情景下中国季风区及降水变化预估

本文使用国际耦合模式比较计划第五阶段(CMIP5)中共46个全球气候模式的数值试验结果,通过对中国区域的年、夏季和冬季降水气候态的模拟能力评估,择优选取了18个气候模式用来预估RCP4.5情景下21世纪中国季风区范围、季风降水及其强度变化。结果表明,相对于1986~2004年参考时段,RCP4.5情景下多数模式和所有模式集合平均在不同时段内均模拟出中国季风区面积、季风降水及其强度的增加趋势,最明显的时段出现在2081~2099年。其中,季风区面积扩张是导致季风降水增加的主要因素。在机制上,热力与动力条件变化均有利于季风降水强度的增加以及更多的水汽进入中国东部,从而引起季风区范围的扩大。     

中国东部夏季风雨带向北推进与条件对称不稳定的关系研究

利用1981～2010年欧洲中期天气预报中心（ECMWF）ERA-interim再分析资料和中国741站日降水资料,分析了中国东部夏季风雨季期间,条件对称不稳定（CSI）与季风雨带季节性向北推进的关系。结果表明,逐月强降水距平场显示了雨带强降水中心自华南（4～6月）先北跳到江淮（5～7月）,再到华北（7～8月）的季节性进程,特别是7～8月强降水距平场具有“北多南少”分布特征,与对应的平均雨量场相比,其表征雨带季节性北跳现象更显著。与雨带强降水中心季节性变化一致,大气负湿位涡通量中心亦先在华南停滞（4～6月）、然后移到江淮（5～7月）,最后到达华北（7～8月）。在垂直方向上,CSI区4、5及9月主要在925～600 hPa,而6～8月抬升到700～600 hPa,CSI区也很好地表征了夏季风北进加强、南撤减弱以及所伴随的雨带变化趋势。在春末夏初,夏季风建立初期的华南、江淮雨季集中期,热成风（垂直风切变）作用对倾斜对流有效位能（SCAPE）的贡献占绝对优势,盛夏的华北雨季集中期则相反,浮力作用项（CAPE）占主要作用;同时,热成风作用项的季节分布与强降水中心季节变化一致,但浮力作用项却没有这种变化关系。条件性湿位涡通量指数（CMF index）可指示雨带强降水异常区。     

2011年南海夏季风爆发过程及其与长江中下游梅雨的联系

采用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料、FY2E-TBB及台站降水资料,对2011年南海夏季风爆发前后的环流特征进行分析。结果表明:2011年强对流活动由孟加拉湾扩展到南海地区,同时伴随着南亚高压移至中南半岛北部,西太平洋副热带高压向东撤出南海地区,南海夏季风于5月第4候(第28候)爆发;季风爆发后,印度-孟加拉湾季风槽形成,南海地区低空开始盛行西南气流,并伴有对流降水的发展和温、湿等要素的突变。随着季风活动的推进,我国雨带北抬,长江中下游一带进入梅雨期,出现降水大值区。通过分析发现长江中下游梅雨与南海夏季风均受副热带高压影响,且两者的强度为显著的负相关关系,梅雨开始时间与南海夏季风爆发时间呈显著的正相关关系。2011年南海夏季风偏弱,爆发时间偏早,长江中下游梅雨强度偏强,入梅时间异常偏早。     

Water vapor sources associated with the early summer precipitation over China

This study investigates the water vapor sources for the early summer precipitation over China in association with the Asian summer monsoon, based on the sensitivity experiments performed by a regional climate model for the year 1998. It is found that the northern South China Sea (NSCS) is an important region for the early summer precipitation over China, particularly the south China region. The evaporative water vapor flux or sea surface temperature over the NSCS could significantly affect the southwesterly water vapor transport towards the NSCS. This in turn may significantly change the water vapor transport from the NSCS to China and so changes the precipitation there. The results of the experiments also show that the precipitation over China does not particularly depend on the water vapor transports from some distant sources by the large-scale flows. Most of the required water vapor could be obtained from the ocean within the monsoon region. The results suggest that the water vapor transport over China is basically a combination of the southeasterly water vapor transport associated with the north Western Pacific subtropical high and the southwesterly water vapor transport associated with the Indian summer monsoon. Without the latter, the early summer precipitation over China could be reduced by up to half of the original amount.     

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WINTERTIME THERMAL CONTRAST OVER THE ASIAN CONTINENT AND THE CLIMATE IN CHINA

Recent studies indicated that except for the land-sea thermal contrast,there also existed the land-land thermal contrast.The composite analysis and t-test method are used to further study the local thermal contrast variation over the Asian continent,and to discuss the association of seasonal variation of land thermal state with circulation over East Asia,the early summer and summer monsoon activity,and the precipitation anomaly in China in the decadal scale.Results show that the positive meridional temperature anomaly transports downward from upper tropospheric layers in middle-high latitudes north of 25°N in the positive years.In the zonal direction,the Tibetan Plateau heating in the successive spring acts as a force to influence the atmosphere,leading to the rapid temperature warming over eastern Chinese continent,which could increase the land-sea thermal contrast with the negative SSTA.Accordingly,the monsoon activity in early summer over East Asian establishes earlier and the summer monsoon intensity becomes stronger.The early summer precipitation is more-than-normal over the Yangtze River,and the summer precipitation is more-than-normal over the north China and the southwest China.The situation is contrary in the negative years.     

An Assessment of Improvements in Global Monsoon Precipitation Simulation in FGOALS-s2简

The performance of Version 2 of the Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System model （FGOALS-s2） in simulat ing global monsoon precipitation （GMP） was evaluated. Compared with FGOALS-sl, higher skill in simulating the annual modes of climatological tropical precipitation and interannual variations of GMP are seen in FGOALS-s2. The simulated domains of the northwestern Pacific monsoon （NWPM） and North American monsoon are smaller than in FGOALS-s 1. The main deficiency of FGOALS-s2 is that the NWPM has a weaker monsoon mode and stronger negatiw,＇ pattern in spring-fall asymmetric mode. The smaller NWPM domain in FGOALS-s2 is due to its simulated colder SST over the western Pacific warm pool. The relationship between ENSO and GMP is simulated reasonably by FGOALS-s2. However, the simulated precipitation anomaly over the South African monsoon region-South Indian Ocean during La Nina years is opposite to the observation. This results mainly from weaker warm SST anomaly over the maritime continent during La Nifia years, leading to stronger upper-troposphere （lower-troposphere） divergence （convergence） over the Indian Ocean, and artificial vertical as cent （descent） over the Southwest Indian Ocean （South African monsoon region）, inducing local excessive （deficient） rainfall. Comparison between the historical and pre-industrial simulations indicated that global land monsoon precipitation changes from 1901 to the 1970s were caused by internal variation of climate system. External forcing may have contributed to the increasing trend of the Australian monsoon since the 1980s. Finally, it shows that global warming could enhance GMR especially over the northern hemispheric ocean monsoon and southern hemispheric land monsoon.     

Influence of aerosol-radiative forcings on the diurnal and seasonal cycles of rainfall over West Africa and Eastern Atlantic Ocean using GCM simulations

Effects of aerosol radiative forcing on the diurnal and seasonal cycles of precipitation over West Africa and eastern Atlantic Ocean are investigated for the boreal summer season: June–July–August. An eight year (2000–2007) average of GCM simulated rainfall data is compared with the corresponding TRMM rainfall data. The comparison shows that the amplitude of the diurnal cycles of rainfall over land and ocean are reasonably well simulated. Over land, the phase of the simulated diurnal cycle of precipitation peaks several hours earlier than that of the TRMM data. Corresponding differences over the ocean(s) are relatively smaller. Some of the key features of the aerosol induced model simulated field anomalies are: (a) aerosol direct radiative forcing which increases the atmospheric stability and reduces the daytime moist convection and convective precipitation; (b) the aerosol induced changes in the diurnal cycle of precipitation are out of phase with those of the TRMM data over land, but are in-phase over the ocean; (c) aerosols reduce the amplitude of the diurnal cycle of precipitation over land and enhance it over ocean. However, the phase of the diurnal cycle is not affected much by the aerosol radiative forcing both over land and ocean. During the boreal summer, aerosol radiative forcing and induced circulation and precipitation cool the Sahel and the southern part of Sahara desert more than the adjacent areas to the north and south, thereby shifting the peak meridional temperature gradient northward. Consequently, an anomalous easterly jet is found north of its climatological location. This anomalous jet is associated with increased cyclonic circulation to the south of its axis, resulting in an anomalous monsoon rain belt in the Sahel.     

2008年广东“史上最强龙舟水”的气候成因

分析了2008年广东“史上最强龙舟水”的气候成因。结果表明：（1）从2007年8月持续到2008年5月的拉尼娜事件,是强降水的主要气候诱因,在其影响下,西太平洋暖池一带热带对流活跃,有利于不稳定能量向北输送;西太平洋副热带高压偏弱、偏东,雨带滞留华南;南海季风爆发偏早、偏强,为强降水提供了丰沛的水汽条件。（2）去冬今春南极海冰面积偏大和青藏高原南部积雪偏少,有利于增强夏季风环流。     

A Study of the Teleconnections in the Asian-Pacific Monsoon Region

The interactions among the Asian-Pacific monsoon subsystems have significant impacts on the climatic regimes in the monsoon region and even the whole world. Based on the domestic and foreign related research, an analysis is made of four different teleconnection modes found in the Asian-Pacific monsoon region, which reveal clearly the interactions among the Indian summer monsoon （ISM）, the East Asian summer monsoon （EASM）, and the western North Pacific summer monsoon （WNPSM）. The results show that： （1） In the period of the Asian monsoon onset, the date of ISM onset is two weeks earlier than the beginning of the Meiyu over the Yangtze River Basin, and a teleconnection mode is set up from the southwestern India via the Bay of Bengal （BOB） to the Yangtze River Basin and southern Japan, i.e., the ＂southern＂ teleconnection of the Asian summer monsoon. （2） In the Asian monsoon culmination period, the precipitation of the Yangtze River Basin is influenced significantly by the WNPSM through their teleconnection relationship, and is negatively related to the WNPSM rainfall, that is, when the WNPSM is weaker than normal, the precipitation of the Yangtze River Basin is more than normal. （3） In contrast to the rainfall over the Yangtze River Basin, the precipitation of northern China （from the 4th pentad of July to the 3rd pentad of August） is positively related to the WNPSM. When the WNPSM is stronger than normal, the position of the western Pacific subtropical high （WPSH） becomes farther northeast than normal, the anomalous northeastward water vapor transport along the southwestern flank of WPSH is converged over northern China, providing adequate moisture for more rainfalls than normal there. （4） The summer rainfall in northern China has also a positive correlation with the ISM. During the peak period of ISM, a teleconnection pattern is formed from Northwest India via the Tibetan Plateau to northern China, i.e., the ＂northern＂ teleconnection of the Asian summer monsoon. The     

Sub-seasonal Prediction of the South China Sea Summer Monsoon Onset in the NCEP Climate Forecast System Version 2

This study depicts the sub-seasonal prediction of the South China Sea summer monsoon onset (SCSSMO) and investigates the associated oceanic and atmospheric processes, utilizing the hindcasts of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Climate Forecast System version 2 (CFSv2). Typically, the SCSSMO is accompanied by an eastward retreat of the western North Pacific subtropical high (WNPSH), development of the cross-equatorial flow, and an increase in the east-west sea surface temperature (SST) gradient. These features are favorable for the onset of westerlies and strengthening of convection and precipitation over the South China Sea (SCS). A more vigorous SCSSMO process shows a higher predictability, and vice versa. The NCEP CFSv2 can successfully predict the onset date and evolution of the monsoon about 4 pentads (20 days) in advance (within 1–2 pentads) for more forceful (less vigorous) SCSSMO processes. On the other hand, the climatological SCSSMO that occurs around the 27th pentad can be accurately predicted in one pentad, and the predicted SCSSMO occurs 1–2 pentads earlier than the observed with a weaker intensity at longer leadtimes. Warm SST biases appear over the western equatorial Pacific preceding the SCSSMO. These biases induce a weaker-than-observed WNPSH as a Gill-type response, leading to weakened low-level easterlies over the SCS and hence an earlier and less vigorous SCSSMO. In addition, after the SCSSMO, remarkable warm biases over the eastern Indian Ocean and the SCS and cold biases over the WNP induce weaker-than-observed westerlies over the SCS, thus also contributing to the less vigorous SCSSMO.     

水汽输送对云南夏季风爆发及初夏降水异常的影响

主要利用1961～2000年云南120个站的逐日降水资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,研究水汽输送对云南夏季风爆发和初夏5月降水异常的影响.结果表明,5月份云南上空为一致的西南风水汽输送,主要由来自印度半岛北部的副热带西风水汽输送和热带印度洋至孟加拉湾的西南风水汽输送汇合而成,而来自南海地区西太平洋副高西侧转向的偏南水汽输送是构成云南东部地区水汽输送的重要分支.5月下旬云南夏季风爆发期间,热带印度洋至孟加拉湾地区的水汽输送显著增强,云南上空增湿明显,这为季风爆发提供了必要的水汽条件,而东亚中纬地区冷空气的入侵则可能是触发季风降水的重要机制.进一步研究发现,云南5月降水量显著的年际变化也与大尺度水汽输送异常密切相关,即当热带印度洋至孟加拉湾地区的水汽输送强,而南海至东亚大陆地区的水汽输送弱时,降水量偏多,反之偏少.     

华南降水季节演变的年代际变化

利用中国测站的逐日降水资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,分析了近35年华南降水季节演变的年代际变化特征及其相关的大气环流异常特征。华南地区降水季节分布型在1990年代初期发生了年代际转变,其中,华南西部降水在1990年之前为双峰型分布,1990年之后变为以6月为峰值的单峰型分布;华南东部降水在1990年之前是以5月、8月为峰值的弱双峰型分布,1990年之后变为以6月、8月为峰值的显著双峰型分布。华南东、西部降水季节分布的年代际变化分别与华南全区6月降水量的年代际增加以及8月华南东、西部降水显著反相的年代际变化（东多西少）密切相关。1990年之后,大雨及以上强降水事件发生频率的增强是导致上述年代际变化的主要原因。华南6月降水年代际的增强与南海区域的西北太平洋副热带高压（简称西太副高）脊线位置的年代际异常偏南密切相关。7月华南地区降水的年代际增加与西太副高年代际东撤及影响华南地区的热带气旋频数年代际增多有关。8月华南东、西部降水显著反相的年代际变化（东多西少）,一方面受印度洋及南海上空夏季风年代际减弱的影响,使得输送到华南西部的水汽减少,另一方面西太副高的年代际增强并西伸,使得源自副高西南侧的水汽更直接输送至华南东部地区有关;同时也与登陆和影响华南东、西部的热带气旋的年代际增多和减少有关。      

The Impacts of Moisture Transport of East Asian Monsoon on Summer Precipitation in Northeast China

By using the ECMWF reanalysis daily data and daily precipitation data of 80 stations in Northeast China from 1961 to 2002, the impacts of moisture transport of East Asian summer monsoon on the summer precipitation anomaly in Northeast China, and the relationship between the variation of moisture budget and the establishment of East Asian summer monsoon in this region are studied. The results demonstrate that the moisture of summer precipitation in Northeast China mainly originates from subtropical, South China Sea, and South Asia monsoon areas. East China and its near coastal area are the convergent region of the monsoonal moisture currents and the transfer station for the currents continually moving northward. The monsoonal moisture transport, as an important link or bridge, connects the interaction between middle and low latitude systems. In summer half year, there is a moisture sink in Northeast China where the moisture influx is greater than outflux. The advance transport and accumulation of moisture are of special importance to pentad time scale summer precipitation. The onset, retreat, and intensity change of the monsoonal rainy season over Northeast China are mainly signified by the moisture input condition along the southern border of this area. The establishment of East Asian summer monsoon in this area ranges from about 10 July to 20 August and the onset in the west is earlier than that in the east. The latitude that the monsoon can reach is gradually northward from west to east, reaching 50°N within longitude 120°-135°E. In summer, the difference of air mass transport between summers with high and low rainfall mainly lies in whether more air masses originating from lower latitudes move northward through East China and its coastal areas, consequently transporting large amounts of hot and humid air into Northeast China.