藏南拉萨地块东段米拉山地区中新世中酸性火山岩地球化学特征及成因研究

藏南拉萨地块内广泛发育中新世中酸性岩浆岩,为探讨其岩浆源区和岩石成因,进一步了解藏南后碰撞深部过程,本文对拉萨地块东部米拉山地区的中新世火山岩进行了岩石学、年代学和地球化学研究。结果表明,岩石类型主要为英安岩,形成于中新世(16~18 Ma);地球化学组成上表现出高硅、高钾、富铝;高Sr、低Y、高Sr/Y值,富集轻稀土,亏损重稀土,Eu正异常;具有高的⁸⁷Sri/⁸⁶Sri值(0.706038~0.707154)和低的ε_Nd(t)值(-1.37~-2.75),表现出一定埃达克质岩特征。结合前人研究成果认为,米拉山地区中新世中酸性火山岩不属于林子宗群,可能是岩石圈拆沉引起幔源物质上涌,导致后碰撞环境下增厚的拉萨地块新生下地壳部分熔融而形成。     

华北克拉通北缘白乃庙组变质火山岩锆石定年与岩石地球化学特征

白乃庙组绿片岩是白乃庙铜金矿床赋存层位,矿区构造上位于华北克拉通北缘古生代陆缘增生带内。岩石学、岩石地球化学特征指示该绿片岩原岩为中基性火山岩。对白乃庙组变质火山岩的锆石LA-MC-ICP-MS UPb年代学研究表明,该火山岩形成年龄为449±3Ma(n=33,MSWD=4.0),为晚奥陶世岩浆活动的产物。白乃庙组变质火山岩具有低的SiO2(43.47%~54.64%)、TiO2(0.60%~1.31%)和P2O5(0.08%~0.35%),宽的MgO(3.98%~12.99%)含量,属于钙碱性系列岩石,岩石富集大离子亲石元素K、Sr等,亏损高场强元素Nb、Ta,Zr、Hf也表现为轻微的亏损。轻重稀土分馏明显,具有不同程度的Eu异常(Eu/Eu*=0.7~1.2)和轻微负的Ce异常(Ce/Ce*=0.74~1.01)。岩石地球化学特征表明白乃庙变质火山岩经历了一定程度的结晶分异,橄榄石和单斜辉石为主要的结晶相。该变质火山岩具有较低的Ti/Y(2.5~5.0)和Zr/Y(189~355)值、低的176 Hf/177 Hf比值和较宽的εHf(t)值,暗示源区可能为岩石圈地幔,且受到了地壳的混染。Nb和Ta强烈亏损、极低的Nb/Ta值(0.08~1.09)以及Ce的负异常表明与大洋板块的俯冲作用有关,岩浆源区可能已受到俯冲组分的影响。构造环境判别显示白乃庙变质火山岩为与消减作用有关的大陆弧岩浆岩。锆石二阶段Hf模式年龄(tDM2)变化范围为1073~1470Ma,平均值为1285Ma(n=30),暗示华北板块北缘在中—新元古代时期曾发生过一次重要的构造热事件。     

青藏高原北部新生代走构油茶错、纳丁错火山岩年代学、地球化学特征及其构造意义

本文对分布于藏北南羌塘地区的走构油茶错和纳丁错新生代火山岩进行了岩石学、同位素年代学和地球化学研究.两个地区火山岩主要由粗面玄武岩、橄榄粗安岩、安粗岩及粗面岩组成,具有从碱性系列火山岩到高钾钙碱性火山岩连续演化的特征.锆石U-Pb定年表明两个地区火山岩形成时代分别为34.64±0.55Ma和35.03±0.54Ma,另外在走构油茶错安粗岩和粗面岩中发现了大量的捕获锆石.地球化学分析显示,岩石ε_(Hf)(t)均为正值,但随SiO_2含量的增高,ε_(Hf)(t)有减小的趋势.稀土元素配分曲线上轻重稀土分馏明显,无或轻微Eu负异常,尤其是重稀土出现分馏,大多数样品(Sm/Yb)_N值介于6.30～8.25之间,表明原生岩浆起源于含有石榴石的弱亏损型软流圈地幔,中酸性岩浆所具有的类似埃达克岩的地球化学特征是原生幔源岩浆经AFC作用形成的.始新世末期南羌塘地区的火山活动可能与向北俯冲的拉萨地块的岩石圈地幔断离造成的软流圈上涌有关.     

西藏中拉萨地块晚侏罗世许如错花岗岩地球化学与岩石成因

西藏中部拉萨地块晚侏罗世花岗岩的岩石成因与源区性质目前尚未得到很好约束。本文报道了中部拉萨地块西段许如错岩体的寄主花岗岩和闪长质包体的锆石U-Pb年龄、元素地球化学和锆石Hf同位素成分。许如错岩体寄主花岗岩年龄为155.1±0.7Ma,闪长质包体与寄主花岗岩同期(155.7±0.7Ma)形成。寄主花岗岩属I型偏铝质-弱过铝质高钾钙碱性系列岩石,富集Rb、K等大离子亲石元素和轻稀土元素,亏损Nb、Ta、P、Ti等高场强元素,锆石εHf(t)值(-16.6~-6.6)指示其可能来源于拉萨地块古老下地壳物质的重熔作用。闪长质包体为准铝质钙碱性系列,锆石εHf(t)值(-8.9~-3.8)具有总体为负但明显高于寄主花岗岩εHf(t)值的特征,表明这些闪长质包体代表了幔源物质组成的加入。许如错晚侏罗世花岗岩可能形成于班公湖-怒江特提斯洋洋壳在中晚侏罗世向南俯冲于拉萨地块之下,引起幔源物质与中部拉萨地块古老基底重熔所产生的酸性岩浆发生岩浆混合作用形成的。     

郯庐断裂带东侧滁州盆地早白垩世高镁埃达克质火山岩地球化学特征及其岩石成因

郯庐断裂带东侧滁州盆地内晚中生代火山岩以安山岩为主。本文对其中3件样品中锆石进行LA-ICP-MS测年,获得年龄分别为128±3Ma、128±2Ma、128±2Ma,为早白垩世岩浆活动的产物。火山岩Si O_2含量为60.48%~66.20%,富钠、富碱(σ=2.34~4.97),属高钾钙碱性-钾玄岩系列。岩石均富集Ba、U、K等大离子亲石元素和轻稀土元素,相对亏损Nb、Ta、Ti等高场强元素和重稀土元素。样品具有高的Sr(944×10~(-6)~1213×10~(-6))含量及高Sr/Y(80.0~113)和(La/Yb)N(23.8~29.7)比值,低Yb(0.70×10~(-6)~0.92×10~(-6))和Y(8.84×10~(-6)~11.8×10~(-6))含量,且Mg O(2.39%~3.48%)和Mg~#(43~61)较高,表明其具有高镁埃达克质岩的特征。火山岩(~(87)Sr/~(86)Sr)_i变化范围为0.70564~0.70579,ε_(Nd)(t)值为-15.7~-14.0,全岩Sr-Nd同位素组成与大别晚中生代加厚下地壳部分熔融形成的岩浆岩的特征相类似。滁州火山岩中锆石具有较高的氧逸度(Ce4+/Ce3+=38~1260,Eu/Eu*=0.68~1.20)和较低的锆石Ti温度(613~728℃),暗示滁州火山岩形成于相对高氧逸度和低温条件下,类似于长江中下游地区(LYRB),明显不同于郯庐断裂带南段(STLF)。受古太平洋板块俯冲流体/熔体交代改造的滁州盆地岩石圈地幔,具有含水、高氧逸度的性质。岩石圈地幔发生部分熔融形成含水、高氧逸度的岩浆,并与下扬子含金红石和石榴子石加厚下地壳部分熔融产生的岩浆混合,从而形成滁州盆地早白垩世高镁埃达克质火山岩。     

云南中甸格咱地区晚三叠世火山岩年代学、地球化学特征及其构造意义

位于义敦岛弧南端的中甸弧地区在印支期内发育大规模酸性-中酸性岩浆活动。近年来,前人对该地区做了大量的研究,但主要着眼于侵入岩,对火山岩的研究偏少。本文对分布于滇西北中甸格咱地区的中酸性火山岩进行锆石U-Pb定年、地球化学及Hf同位素分析,2件样品的锆石U-Pb年龄变化于214~212Ma,表明其为晚三叠岩浆活动的产物。岩石Si O2含量为53.37%~63.77%,全碱含量达5.19%~7.16%,为高钾钙碱性系列,富集大离子亲石元素和轻稀土元素,亏损Nb、Ta、Ti等高场强元素,具有典型岛弧火山岩特征。所测锆石εHf(t)值介于-0.04~3.06之间,大部分为正值,显示出幔源岩浆特征,相对应的锆石Hf同位素二阶模式年龄为1.05~1.25Ga。综合岩石学、地球化学及构造地质特点认为,格咱火山岩形成于印支期甘孜-理塘洋壳西向俯冲构造背景,其源区为俯冲流体交代的岩石圈地幔,岩浆上升过程经历了壳源沉积物质混染。     

西藏则学地区结仁-朗日火山岩锆石U-Pb定年、岩石地球化学特征及构造环境分析

针对西藏则学结仁-朗日火山岩的野外地质、岩石学、锆石U-Pb定年以及岩石地球化学等方面的系统研究,结果表明:结仁-朗日火山岩为一套中酸性的火山熔岩及碎屑岩,火山作用以爆发作用为主,岩石类型主要为粗面岩、英安岩及流纹质晶屑岩屑凝灰岩。其LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为50.2Ma±2.2Ma~56.18Ma±0.60Ma,并非前人厘定的嘎扎村组(N2g)火山岩,而属林子宗群年波组(E2n)火山岩。结仁-朗日火山岩具有高K(K2O质量分数为2.68%~4.09%)低Ti(TiO2质量分数为0.69%~0.85%)、高钾钙碱性-钾玄岩系列的主量元素岩石地球化学特征;其稀土配分模式呈轻稀土富集的右倾曲线,LaN/YbN比值为9.13~14.29,普遍出现负铕异常(δEu=0.35~0.84);微量元素方面表现为Nb,P,Ti的亏损;结仁-朗日火山岩具有高放射成因Pb的同位素组成特征。总体上,结仁-朗日火山岩形成于雅鲁藏布洋壳向北俯冲到印度板块与欧亚大陆碰撞的过渡环境,岩浆起源于楔形地幔部分熔融所形成的基性岩浆在上升过程中混染陆壳熔融所形成的酸性岩浆。     

青藏高原拉萨地块西部雄巴盆地后碰撞钾质-超钾质火山岩年代学与地球化学

青藏高原拉萨地块后碰撞钾质和超钾质岩浆活动广泛分布且已有不少研究成果,但是它们的年龄主要是17~8Ma,而对于拉萨地块西部雄巴地区时代为24~23Ma的岩浆作用则研究较少。本文对雄巴盆地新识别出的三种类型火山岩的锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年和岩石地球化学研究表明,它们分别是超钾质安粗岩(23.9±0.6Ma)、粗面英安岩(23.3±0.4Ma)和钾质流纹岩(24.1±0.3Ma),这三种岩石近于同时产出。三类岩石的源区明显不同,其中钾质流纹岩是中、上地壳部分熔融产物;具有埃达克质特征的钾质粗面英安岩可能为加厚下地壳部分熔融;而超钾质安粗岩可能富集地幔部分熔融的产物。雄巴三种火山岩均含数量不等的继承锆石,钾质流纹岩具有~150Ma、~90Ma和~50Ma的继承锆石年龄群;钾质粗面英安岩突出显示了~90Ma左右岩浆活动记录和两个新元古代继承锆石年龄;幔源超钾质安粗岩的继承锆石则绝大多数继承锆石为晚白垩纪以来的岩浆活动记录,突出显示110~80Ma和62~30Ma两个峰值。     

柴北缘牛鼻子梁地区花岗闪长岩锆石U-Pb年代学及地球化学研究

柴北缘牛鼻子梁地区的花岗闪长岩锆石U-Pb年代学及岩石地球化学研究结果表明,该花岗闪长岩的锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb谐和年龄为393.2~395.6Ma,对应的加权平均年龄为(394.4±2.4)Ma,表明该岩石形成于中泥盆世。岩石主量元素具有较高的SiO_2(65.70%~69.22%)和Al_2O_3(14.96%~16.03%)、较低的MgO(1.37%~1.89%)含量,A/CNK值为0.95~0.98,属于钙碱性、准铝质系列,具有I型花岗岩的特征,表明其岩浆起源于下地壳部分熔融。岩石稀土总量较高,无明显的Eu异常(δEu=0.95~1.30),富集轻稀土元素和K、Rb、Ba、U等大离子亲石元素,相对亏损重稀土元素和Nb、Ta、Ti、Th、Zr等高场强元素。综上可知,岩石具有碰撞后花岗岩的地球化学特征属性,结合区内晚泥盆世牦牛山组陆相火山岩和区域构造演化特征,认为牛鼻子梁地区的花岗闪长岩形成于柴达木地块与南祁连地块碰撞后的伸展环境。     

北山南带音凹峡地区酸性火山岩年代学、地球化学研究:二叠纪裂谷岩浆作用的新证据

北山造山带位于中亚造山带南缘中段地区,是中亚造山带、塔里木克拉通和华北克拉通的构造结合部。年代学资料表明北山南带晚古生代存在一期重要的岩浆活动,所形成的岩石类型包括了镁铁-超镁铁质杂岩、花岗岩类以及酸性火山岩。音凹峡地区位于北山南带,该地区广泛分布着厚度巨大的二叠系。这套地层主要是由酸性火山岩及火山碎屑岩组成,流纹岩的锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb年龄为273±1 Ma,为早二叠世。针对音凹峡地区酸性火山岩的地球化学研究发现,其具有高SiO_2、K_2O+Na_2O、Al_2O_3含量、低Fe_2O_3~T、Mg O、P_2O_5含量;富集轻稀土元素,重稀土元素无分异,具有明显的Eu负异常;微量元素方面,酸性火山岩富集Cs、Rb、Th、U、Zr和Hf等元素,而相对亏损Ba、Nb、Ta、Sr、P、Ti等元素。酸性火山岩的锆石ε_(Hf)(t)值为-6.0~3.9,具有较老的Hf同位素模式年龄,t_(DM2)=1046~1669 Ma。音凹峡酸性火山岩的地球化学证据表明这套火山岩系可能由中-新元古代壳源岩石部分熔融形成,并与幔源岩浆进行了不同程度的混合,之后发生了分离结晶作用。综合音凹峡地区同时代镁铁质岩石、花岗岩类的研究成果,以及该地区二叠系沉积建造及火山岩特征分析可知,北山南带在早二叠世应处于大陆裂谷的构造背景。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.