Wind tunnel modeling and measurements of the flux of wind-blown sand

This paper presents a way to empirically fit experimental data for the horizontal flux of various sizes of wind-blown dry sand using data from wind tunnel experiments. We measured vertical wind profiles to derive threshold shear velocity and estimated shear velocity and the flux of sand mass as a function of the height for nine different grain sizes. We propose a fitting model based on the experimental data and a least-squares method and derive an explicit form of sand flux as a function of height and shear velocity for these grain sizes. We also obtained an explicit form of the empirical equation for the measurement of sand transport per unit width and unit time by integrating the empirical equation as a function of height. Finally, we compared the effectiveness of Bagnold's equation, Kawamura's expression and Lettau and Lettau's equation, for predicting sand transport with the results of our empirical equation. The results show that the transport predicted by all of the equations were always lower than the measured results from the empirical equation for all grain sizes and shear velocities. However, the empirical equation matched Bagnold's equation, Kawamura's equation, and Lettau and Lettau's equation if the coefficients in these equations were adjusted instead of using their original coefficients. The empirical equation for sand transport in the present study contradicts previous conclusions generated by Bagnold's equation, which predict that for a given wind drag, the transport of a coarse sand is greater than that of a fine sand.     

基于GIS空间分析技术的新月形沙丘表面输沙率模型研究

 输沙率研究是风沙物理学与风沙工程学的重要内容。为了尝试GIS空间分析技术在新月形沙丘表面不同部位输沙率分布及模型建立中的应用,选取塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地典型孤立新月形沙丘,对其表面进行粒度采样和风速采样,并对沙丘表面的五个典型部位进行输沙率的采集。经过对风速数据归一化处理之后,根据粒度和风速采样特点,分别应用克里格方法和反距离方法对粒度和风速样点插值,得到新月形沙丘表面栅格形式的粒径分布和风速分布图。利用3种常用输沙率模型分别对沙丘表面5个典型部位进行输沙率计算,并与实测值进行对比。选取拟合优度最佳的Srensen模型,整合粒径和风速分布图,利用地图代数方法对沙丘表面输沙率分布进行计算,得到栅格形式的沙丘表面输沙率分布图。利用GIS的空间分析技术研究沙丘表面的输沙率分布,克服了传统定点观测的诸多不足。     

Dynamic processes of a simple linear dune—a study in the Taklimakan Sand Sea, China

Samples of dune sands, surveys of the morphology and field measurements of wind velocity and direction of a simple linear dune in Taklimakan Sand Sea show that the airflow and sand flux vary with the change of wind direction on the dune surface. Decrease of the airflow stress on the lee flank does not result in much decrease of the sand flux because of the low threshold shear velocities and the airflow conditions. There are no significant relations between the sand flux on the lee flank and the angle of incidence of the airflow. The low threshold shear velocities and the maintenance of the sand flux at the lee flank are the main mechanisms keeping the linear shape of the dunes. Measurements of the sand flux shows that it reaches a maximum on the crest of the dune. The grain size of the transported sands has some differences compared to that of the dune surface. The sands transported are finer than that on the dune surface, but better sorted under the influence of the medium to low wind activity. The field experiment results exhibit that it is possible for the dunes to be shaped as linear dunes during the processes of accumulation and elongation.     

二维沙丘迎风坡沙粒跃移运动的数值模拟

为了研究沙丘迎风坡面上沙粒的跃移运动,本文根据风工程和空气动力学的最新理论,给出了沙丘迎风坡面上风场的空间分布规律,在此基础上对沙粒跃移运动进行了数值计算。由于沙丘周围流场情况较为复杂,各处的风速廓线也不同,故选取不同的坡面位置进行跃移计算,其中各处的起沙率由已有的实验结果或拟合公式给出。计算结果表明：从坡脚到坡顶,平均风速加速比和摩阻风速逐渐增加,到沙丘顶部达到最大值;同时沿坡面向上,各截面处单宽输沙率和距离当地地面相同高度处输沙浓度逐渐加强,这与已有文献报道的结果吻合良好。     

Wind tunnel investigation of the influence of surface moisture content on the entrainment and erosion of beach sand by wind using sands from tropical humid coastal southern China

Wind erosion has major impacts on dune growth, desertification, and architecture on sea coasts. The deflation threshold shear velocity is a crucial parameter in predicting erosion, and surface moisture greatly affects this threshold and thus sand stability. Wind tunnel studies have shown that reduced moisture contents decrease entrainment thresholds and increase wind erosion, but field and wind tunnel test data is lacking for tropical humid coastal areas. In this study, we investigated the influence of surface moisture contents (at 1 mm depth) on sand entrainment and erosion using tropical humid coastal sands from southern China. Shear velocities were deduced from velocity profiles above the sand. The threshold shear velocity increased linearly with increasing ln100M (M, gravimetric moisture content). The increase was steepest below a moisture content of 0.0124 (i.e., at M_1.5, the moisture content in the sand at a matric potential of − 1.5 MPa). We compared several popular models that predict threshold shear velocity of moisture sediment, and found substantial differences between their predicted results. At a surface moisture content of 0.0124, the predicted increase in the wet threshold shear velocity compared with the dry threshold shear velocity ranged from 34% to 195%. The empirical model of Chepil and Selah simulated the data well for M < 0.0062 (i.e., 0.5M_1.5), whereas Belly's empirical model simulated the data best for M > 0.0062. Wind erosion modulus increased with increasing effective wind velocity following a power function with a positive exponent at all moisture contents, but decreased with increasing surface moisture content following a power function with a negative exponent. When wind speed and moisture content varied simultaneously, wind erosion modulus was proportional to the 0.73 power of effective wind velocity, but inversely proportional to the 1.48 power of M. The increase in resistance to erosion at low moisture contents probably results from cohesive forces in the water films surrounding the sand particles. At a moisture content near M_1.5, wind erosion ceases nearly for all wind velocities that we tested.     

海岸风沙流中不同粒径组沙粒的垂向分布模式

通过对河北昌黎黄金海岸沙丘风沙流的野外实地观测与室内风洞模拟实验数据的数值模拟,探讨了我国典型海岸沙丘风沙流中不同粒径组沙粒输沙量的垂向分布模式。结果表明,河北昌黎黄金海岸沙丘表面风沙流中不同粒径组沙粒输沙量的垂向分布特征并不一致,其中细沙和中沙符合典型的指数递减分布规律,但粗沙则为负幂函数分布。究其原因,主要与不同粒径组沙粒输沙量的分布高度及运动方式差异有关。在实际非均匀沙床面上,粗沙主要集中分布于沙丘表面4cm高度内湍流发育的近地表层,运动方式以蠕移为主,沙丘表面湍流的主导作用使其输沙量随高度的变化满足负幂律关系,但中沙和细沙则以跃移运动为主,跃移沙粒输沙量的垂向分布呈现指数递减特征。     

科尔沁沙地沙丘生境单元凋落物运移特征

通过测定科尔沁沙地沙丘生境单元凋落物的运移量,分析了沙丘类型和生境变化对凋落物运移的影响,并探讨了是否可以通过凋落物运移量的变化来判断营养物质的迁移。结果表明:科尔沁沙地沙丘凋落物的运移过程主要发生在非生长季,呈明显的单峰型季节波动。凋落物运移量在不同沙丘的丘间地、迎风坡、丘顶和背风坡均表现出明显的空间差异性,丘顶的凋落物运移量最大,迎风坡次之,丘间地和背风坡相对较小。凋落物运移量有随距地表高度增加而下降的趋势,距地表高度为0~25 cm时,凋落物运移量最大,显著高于25~50、50~75、75~100 cm 3个高度区间。凋落物运移量与风速在流动沙丘、半固定沙丘和固定沙丘均呈显著的二次曲线正相关,显示风速是影响凋落物运移量动态变化的重要因素。     

Measurements and numerical simulations of the degree of activity and vegetation cover on parabolic dunes in north-eastern Brazil

In this work we present measurements of vegetation cover over parabolic dunes with different degrees of activation along the north-eastern Brazilian coast. We extend the local values of the vegetation cover density to the whole dune by correlating measurements with the relative brightness index C of high resolution QuickBird panchromatic satellite images of the dune field. We then introduce the vegetation data into a continuous model for vegetated dunes, coupling sand erosion and vegetation growth, and perform simulations of the evolution of the morphology and vegetation cover of parabolic dunes. Finally, from the comparison of both, the measurements and the simulation results, we show that the model is able to predict the dune shape and the vegetation distribution of real parabolic dunes as result of the evolution of a blow-out.     

关于风沙流中风速廓线的进一步实验研究

总结与分析了以前学者对风沙流中风速廓线的研究成果,指出了其中的不足之处。并通过实验测出两种较典型自然沙(沙丘沙与河滩冲积沙)所形成稳定状态下风沙流中的风速廓线,提出了新的风速廓线模型。实验结果表明风沙流中的风速廓线用幂函数u=az^b拟和最佳,拟合系数均大于0.95。经验证,实验结果可靠。     

雅鲁藏布江中游不同地表输沙量特征

雅鲁藏布江河流宽谷区是青藏高原风沙活动最为强烈地区之一.输沙量是评价区域风沙活动的最主要指标之一,但目前对该地区输沙量的研究几乎是空白.利用旋转多路方口集沙仪对雅鲁藏布江流域中游河岸沙地、河漫滩沙地和山麓沙地3种地表类型、6个点2020年9-12月的输沙量进行野外实地观测,对比不同下垫面的输沙量,分析地表特征对输沙量的...     

新月形沙丘迎风坡形态及沉积物对表面气流的响应

对孤立新月形沙丘迎风坡风速的野外实测和计算表明,沙丘迎风坡表面风速廓线呈非对数关系,近地面剪切风速和输沙强度由坡脚至丘顶总体呈递增趋势,但同时随断面坡度的增减而发生相应的变化;沿断面输沙率的变化导致蚀积强度的改变,表现为沙丘迎风坡坡度变缓的部位沉积大于侵蚀,其它部位侵蚀大于沉积,其中丘顶输沙率和侵蚀强度最大。在沙丘形态上,表现为坡度减缓的部位沉积变凸、其它部位因侵蚀变凹以及坡脚和丘顶的前移。变凸和变凹部位反过来又制约着表面剪切风速的相应变化。粒度分析也表明,沙丘迎风坡表面粒度特征主要取决于表面蚀积状况,同断面形态表现出密切的相关性。     

Controls on the height and spacing of eolian ripples and transverse dunes: A numerical modeling investigation

Ripples and transverse dunes in areas of abundant sand supply increase in height and spacing as a function of time, grain size, and excess shear velocity. How and why each of these factors influence ripple and transverse dune size, however, is not precisely known. In this paper, the controls on the height and spacing of ripples and transverse dunes in areas of abundant sand supply are investigated using a numerical model for the formation of eolian bedforms from an initially flat surface. This bedform evolution model combines the basic elements of Werner's [Werner, B.T., 1995. Eolian dunes: Computer simulations and attractor interpretation. Geology 23, 1107–1110.] cellular automaton model of dune formation with a model for boundary layer flow over complex topography. Particular attention is paid to the relationship between bed shear stress and slope on the windward (stoss) side of evolving bedforms. Nonlinear boundary layer model results indicate that bed shear stresses on stoss slopes increase with increasing slope angle up to approximately 20°, then decrease with increasing slope angle as backpressure effects become limiting. In the bedform evolution model, the linear boundary layer flow model of Jackson and Hunt [Jackson, P.S., Hunt, J.C.R., 1975. Turbulent wind flow over a low hill. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 101, 929–955.], generalized to 3D, is modified to include the nonlinear relationship between bed shear stress and slope. Bed shear stresses predicted by the modified Jackson and Hunt flow model are then used to predict rates of erosion and deposition iteratively through time within a mass-conservative framework similar to Werner [Werner, B.T., 1995. Eolian dunes: Computer simulations and attractor interpretation. Geology 23, 1107–1110.]. Beginning with a flat bed, the model forms ripples that grow in height and spacing until a dynamic steady-state condition is achieved in which bedforms migrate downwind without further growth. The steady-state ripple spacing predicted by this model is approximately 3000 times greater than the aerodynamic roughness length of the initially flat surface, which is a function of grain size and excess shear velocity. Once steady-state ripples form, they become the dominant roughness element of the surface. The increase in roughness associated with ripple formation triggers the same bedform instability that created ripples, causing dunes to form at a larger scale. In this way, the numerical model of this paper suggests that ripples and dunes are genetically linked. Transverse dunes in this model have a steady-state height and spacing that is controlled by the effective roughness length of the rippled surface, which is shown to be on the order of 500 times greater than the original roughness length, but varies significantly with the details of ripple morphology. The model predictions for ripple and dune spacing and their controlling variables are consistent with field measurements from the published literature. The model of this paper provides a preliminary process-based understanding of the granulometric control of ripples and dunes in areas of abundant sand supply and unidirectional prevailing winds, and it argues for a genetic linkage between ripples and dunes via a scaling relationship between eolian bedform size and the aerodynamic roughness length.     

半隐蔽式草方格沙障凹曲面形成的流场解析及沉积表征

利用野外风沙观测、沉积物粒度分析和等比例实体草方格风洞流场模拟,解析了草方格沙障内部凹曲面形成的风沙流场过程。草方格分别作为疏透沙障和地表粗糙元对贴地层和近地层风沙流具有不同的影响：床面蚀、积分布和方格中心凹曲面的形成发展,以及沉积物粒度变化,取决于草带之间的贴地层流场分布格局以及草带对风沙流中固体物质的截留;近地层风力普遍受到草方格粗糙元的削弱,促进了沙面稳定。高风速下输沙率垂向分布的“象鼻”结构,体现了草方格对促使风沙流结构变异、形成和维持草方格凹曲面的重要性。沙丘不同部位草方格沉积物粒度分布模式不同,显示沙丘部位也是影响草方格内部流场的一个因素,以迎风坡中部最有利于方格内凹曲面的形成。     

半干旱区不同类型沙丘风沙流结构特征

采用两种阶梯式集沙仪和小型气象站于2017年4—5月对科尔沁沙地流动沙丘、半固定沙丘和固定沙丘0~75 cm气流层风沙流的总输沙量、输沙率、粒径组成分布和风蚀特征值进行了观测。结果表明：（1）随着高度增加,总输沙量下降,随着风速增加,总输沙量上升;92.20%~95.60%的输沙量发生在0~21 cm高度。（2）总输沙率（Q）流动沙丘>半固定沙丘>固定沙丘,将Q与地上200 cm风速进行函数拟合,流动沙丘幂函数最佳（R²=0.986）,半固定（R²=0.990）和固定沙丘（R²=0.956）指数函数最佳。（3）将各高度的输沙率与地上200 cm风速进行函数拟合,流动沙丘（R²≥0.905）和半固定沙丘（R²≥0.968）拟合度幂函数好于指数函数,固定沙丘（R²≥0.923）指数函数优于幂函数。（4）在一定高度下,3类沙丘输沙率均随着风速的增加而增加;在一定风速下,输沙率随着高度的增加而逐渐递减。（5）3类沙丘的特征值随着风速的增加呈现出逐渐递增的趋势;流动沙丘以λ>1为主,表现出持续侵蚀输送沙粒的能力;半固定沙丘当风速>9.0 m·s^-1时逐渐出现侵蚀状态;固定沙丘以λ<1为主,近地表风沙以堆积状态为主。（6）3类沙丘主要由粒径为0.1~0.25 mm的细沙构成,在0~30 cm高度,细沙占输沙量的50.09%~85.11%,在30~75 cm高度,细沙占输沙量的43.53%~75.53%。     

地形对包兰铁路沙坡头段防护体系的影响

选择沙坡头铁路防护体系典型断面,利用野外风场观测与风洞模拟,讨论地形在道路防沙体系中的作用。结果表明,防护体系前沿栅栏沙丘下风向10倍沙丘高度的水平范围内,地表摩阻风速通常小于临界值;风速递减系数随防护距离的增大而增大,地形倾斜和起伏对贴地层风力减弱的贡献占防护体系风速削弱程度的43%。自流沙区至铁路路基,潜在输沙率迅速波动降低,其中地形变化使得防护体系内潜在输沙率降低50%以上。这表明,地形是沙坡头铁路防护体系发挥卓越功能的重要因素,栅栏沙丘已成为防护体系的重要构成部分。     

乌兰布和沙漠东北缘地表风沙流结构特征

在国家林业局磴口荒漠生态站长期监测的基础上,利用多种积沙仪,对乌兰布和沙漠东北缘流动沙丘、油蒿半固定沙丘、白刺半固定沙丘、油蒿固定沙丘、白刺固定沙丘5种典型下垫面近地面（0～100 cm）的风沙流输沙量进行了实地观测和对比分析。结果表明：（1） 输沙率（q）随高度（h）增加呈幂函数（q=ah^-b,R²≥0.8409）规律衰减,随风速（v）增大呈幂函数（q=av^b,R²≥0.9256）规律增加,42.8%～70.7%的输沙量分布在10 cm高度内,67.6%～90.0%的输沙量分布于30 cm高度内。当地表植被盖度达到40%以上时,输沙率下降至无植被覆盖地表输沙率的6.6%以下,可有效阻止地表风蚀。（2） 沙物质主要由粒径为50～250 μm的细沙和极细沙构成,各高度层风蚀物粒度组成服从单峰态分布,峰值在100～250 μm。随高度增加,风蚀物粒径范围趋于变窄,粒径趋于更细。（3） 起沙风多出现在WSW和NW方向,占全年起沙风的53.19%。风沙流中跃移输沙、蠕移输沙的空间分布在理论上应与风向频率分布基本一致,差异性主要由各方位风的强度和持续时间等因素导致。研究结果可为该区域防沙工程设计提供理论参考。     

偏西风作用下敦煌月牙泉金字塔沙山顶部风沙流初步观测研究

金字塔沙山丘体高大,形态复杂,坡面风沙动力过程实地观测困难,至今尚无坡面风沙流野外观测数据。通过新研制自动集沙仪,对偏西风作用下敦煌月牙泉北侧金字塔沙山顶部风沙流进行了实时观测,共观测8组近地表51.4 cm高度内输沙数据,各观测时段中2 m高度平均风速7.46～14.15 m·s^-1,各组观测时长18~95 min。结果表明：偏西风纵向气流作用下金字塔沙山风沙流结构与平坦地表一致,即输沙量随高度增加呈单一的指数规律递减,且风沙流主要在近地表30 cm高度内输移。风沙流结构特征值λ以大于1为主,且随风速增大而增大,表明金字塔沙山坡面过程主要表现为风蚀过程。偏西风作用下金字塔沙山风沙流中沙粒以细沙为主,平均粒径随高度增加而减小;沙山迎风坡沙粒从坡脚到沙脊线逐渐粗化,风蚀作用增强,细沙从而随风沙流搬运至沙山顶,对金字塔沙山多以细沙为主的格局形成起重要作用。     

新月型沙丘的移动和固定过程——对风成沙古环境意义的指示（英文）

Paleo-dune deposits have been widely used as a proxy indicator of past dune activity, which is further used to reconstruct paleoclimates. However, recent studies have critically examined the reproducibility of dune chronologies and the complexity of paleo-dune deposits as paleoenvironmental records. This paper addresses questions on the paleoenvironmental implications of dune chronostratigraphies that have been raised by those reviews, in the specific case of crescentic dunes, using a case study from the Mu Us dune field, north-central China. The processes of turn-over and stabilization of relatively small crescentic dunes are first investigated by observational evidence. In combination with the analysis of a simplified sand preservation model and stratigraphic records, the effect of dune morphodynamics on sand preservation is demonstrated. It is especially evident that thick, nearly instantaneously deposited sand units record dune stabilization near the very end of a dune activity episode, while thin sand units may signal the preservation of sand deposited earlier in episodes of activity. Interpreting the distribution of luminescence ages that indicate sand deposition over time is not as simple as assumed in some previous work. Low frequency of sand ages could indicate an interval of either dune field stabilization or extensive dune activity but poor sand preservation. A peak of sand age frequency likely represents a shift in dune field activity towards stabilization, not a peak of active dune extent, especially if it partially overlaps with an independently identified interval of stabilization(e.g. one recorded by paleosols). The nature and magnitude of these biases in the distribution of sand ages over time are strongly affected by the magnitude of net sand accumulation, which is in turn related to sand supply, transport capacity and sand availability, and ultimately climate change. Relatively short dune stabilization and turn-over time(10~1 to 10~2 yrs) indicate that dune geomorphic processes can quickly respond to short-term disturbance, but the chronology of that response must be interpreted in light of how those processes influence age distributions.     

Crescentic dune migration and stabilization: Implications for interpreting paleo-dune deposits as paleoenvironmental records

Paleo-dune deposits have been widely used as a proxy indicator of past dune activity, which is further used to reconstruct paleoclimates. However, recent studies have critically examined the reproducibility of dune chronologies and the complexity of paleo-dune deposits as paleoenvironmental records. This paper addresses questions on the paleoenvironmental implications of dune chronostratigraphies that have been raised by those reviews, in the specific case of crescentic dunes, using a case study from the Mu Us dune field, north-central China. The processes of turn-over and stabilization of relatively small crescentic dunes are first investigated by observational evidence. In combination with the analysis of a simplified sand preservation model and stratigraphic records, the effect of dune morphodynamics on sand preservation is demonstrated. It is especially evident that thick, nearly instantaneously deposited sand units record dune stabilization near the very end of a dune activity episode, while thin sand units may signal the preservation of sand deposited earlier in episodes of activity. Interpreting the distribution of luminescence ages that indicate sand deposition over time is not as simple as assumed in some previous work. Low frequency of sand ages could indicate an interval of either dune field stabilization or extensive dune activity but poor sand preservation. A peak of sand age frequency likely represents a shift in dune field activity towards stabilization, not a peak of active dune extent, especially if it partially overlaps with an independently identified interval of stabilization (e.g. one recorded by paleosols). The nature and magnitude of these biases in the distribution of sand ages over time are strongly affected by the magnitude of net sand accumulation, which is in turn related to sand supply, transport capacity and sand availability, and ultimately climate change. Relatively short dune stabilization and turn-over time (10¹ to 10² yrs) indicate that dune geomorphic processes can quickly respond to short-term disturbance, but the chronology of that response must be interpreted in light of how those processes influence age distributions.     

Field measurement and scaled-down wind-tunnel model measurement of airflow field over a barchan dune

Airflow is measured over a barchan dune in the field and over a scaled-down model in a wind tunnel. The change of the flow speed over the stoss side is represented by the change of speed-up ratio. According to the field measurement, the wind profiles within 0-3m above the stoss can be divided into two segments. The lower segment, about 0.66 m thick, is the inner-boundary layer, within which the friction velocities derived from the wind profiles increase from the upwind inter-dune region to the upper stoss, and then decrease near the dune top. This change, together with the changes of airflow field, speed-up ratio and sand flux, is related to the morphological change and contributes to the stable shape and height of a barchan dune. In the wind tunnel, airflow varies in a similar way as in the field, with the speed-up ratios constantly higher than 1.0 and increasing along the stoss slope. While the segmentation of wind profiles also occurs in the wind tunnel, friction velocities derived from the wind profiles decrease along the stoss, indicating a very thin inner-boundary layer above the wind tunnel model where the detailed wind-speed change becomes difficult to measure using the present instruments.