Characteristic features of pockmarks on the North Sea Floor and Scotian Shelf

This paper presents the results of a comparative study of pockmarks and associated features appearing on both sides of the North Atlantic: on the Scotian Shelf off Nova Scotia and in the northern North Sea. Pockmarks are formed in seabed material consisting of soft silty clay. The seismic, sonar and lithologic characteristics of the sediments on the Scotian Shelf are remarkably similar to those found in the northern North Sea. Sediment clouds suspended in the water column immediately over the seabed have previously been observed on side-scan records associated with gas-charged sediments on corresponding shallow-seismic records. These and similar observations strongly suggest that most pockmarks are caused by gas efflux through the seafloor. However, the detailed mechanism of formation and the origin of the gas in the sediments is still unknown.     

Control of active faults and sea level changes on the distribution of shallow gas accumulations and gas-related seismic structures along the central branch of the North Anatolian Fault,southern Marmara shelf,Turkey

Detailed reviews of multichannel seismic reflection, sparker, chirp and multibeam data that were collected on the southern Marmara Sea shelf revealed various shallow gas indicators and related sedimentary structures, including enhanced reflections, seismic chimneys, acoustic blanking, bright spots, pockmarks, mound-like features and seeps. Seismic attribute analyses were applied to characterise the existence of gas-bearing sediments. The distribution of shallow gas indicators provides important insights into their origin and the geological factors that control them. Prominent gas accumulations and seeps are observed along the profiles that cross the branches of the central segment of the North Anatolian Fault Zone, which indicates that the gas seeps are controlled by active faulting. This indicates that the faults act as conduits through the sedimentary column. The dense occurrences of gas directly off the river mouths along the shallow bays provide clues about the organic-rich carbon content of the sediments and biogenic methane generation. In some areas, the gas-related acoustic anomalies are mostly located in the upper sediments below the marine unit, which indicates that the gas emissions in these areas were terminated as a result of the increased overburden pressure after the Holocene sea level rise and the deposition of the marine unit.     

Formation of pockmarks and submarine canyons associated with dissociation of gas hydrates on the Joetsu Knoll,eastern margin of the Sea of Japan

This study, based on 3.5 kHz SBP, 3D seismic data and long piston cores obtained during MD179 cruise, elucidated the timing and causes of pockmark and submarine canyon formation on the Joetsu Knoll in the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan. Gas hydrate mounds and pockmarks aligned parallel to the axis on the top of the Joetsu Knoll are associated with gas chimneys, pull-up structures, faults, and multiple bottom-simulating reflectors (BSRs), suggesting that thermogenic gas migrated upward through gas chimneys and faults from deep hydrocarbon sources and reservoirs. Seismic and core data suggest that submarine canyons on the western slope of the Joetsu Knoll were formed by turbidity currents generated by sand and mud ejection from pockmarks on the knoll. The pockmark and canyon formation probably commenced during the sea-level fall, lasting until transgression stages. Subsequently, hydropressure release during the sea level lowering might have instigated dissociation of the gas hydrate around the base of the gas hydrate, leading to generation and migration of large volumes of methane gas to the seafloor. Accumulation of hydrate caps below mounds eventually caused the collapse of the mounds and the formation of large depressions (pockmarks) along with ejection of sand and mud out of the pockmarks, thereby generating turbidity currents. Prolonged pockmark and submarine canyon activities might have persisted until the transgression stage because of time lags from gas hydrate dissociation around the base of the gas hydrate until upward migration to the seafloor. This study revealed the possibility that submarine canyons were formed by pockmark activities. If that process occurred, it would present important implications for reconstructing the long-term history of shallow gas hydrate activity based on submarine canyon development.     

Microbial methane turnover at mud volcanoes of the Gulf of Cadiz

The Gulf of Cadiz is a tectonically active area of the European continental margin and characterised by a high abundance of mud volcanoes, diapirs, pockmarks and carbonate chimneys. During the R/V SONNE expedition “GAP-Gibraltar Arc Processes (SO-175)” in December 2003, several mud volcanoes were surveyed for gas seepage and associated microbial methane turnover. Pore water analyses and methane oxidation measurements on sediment cores recovered from the centres of the mud volcanoes Captain Arutyunov, Bonjardim, Ginsburg, Gemini and a newly discovered, mud volcano-like structure called “No Name” show that thermogenic methane and associated higher hydrocarbons rising from deeper sediment strata are completely consumed within the seabed. The presence of a distinct sulphate-methane transition zone (SMT) overlapping with high sulphide concentrations suggests that methane oxidation is mediated under anaerobic conditions with sulphate as the electron acceptor. Anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) and sulphate reduction (SR) rates show maxima at the SMT, which was found between 20 and 200 cm below seafloor at the different mud volcanoes. In comparison to other methane seeps, AOM activity (<383 mmol m⁻² year⁻¹) and diffusive methane fluxes (<321 mmol m⁻² year⁻¹) in mud volcano sediments of the Gulf of Cadiz are low to mid range. Corresponding lipid biomarker and 16S rDNA clone library analysis give evidence that AOM is mediated by a mixed community of anaerobic methanotrophic archaea and associated sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) in the studied mud volcanoes. Little is known about the variability of methane fluxes in this environment. Carbonate crusts littering the seafloor of mud volcanoes in the northern part of the Gulf of Cadiz had strongly ¹³C-depleted lipid signatures indicative of higher seepage activities in the past. However, actual seafloor video observations showed only scarce traces of methane seepage and associated biological processes at the seafloor. No active fluid or free gas escape to the hydrosphere was observed visually at any of the surveyed mud volcanoes, and biogeochemical measurements indicate a complete methane consumption in the seafloor. Our observations suggest that the emission of methane to the hydrosphere from the mud volcano structures studied here may be insignificant at present.     

Characteristic features of the occurrence of gas-fluid emanations on the northeastern slope of Sakhalin Island, Sea of Okhotsk

This paper summarizes the results of combined studies in the areas of the occurrence of gas-fluid emanations in the water column, on the seafloor, and in the upper part of the sedimentary section on the northeastern slope of Sakhalin Island (Sea of Okhotsk). The phenomena typical of methane seeps were characterized in detail: the presence of acoustic anomalies, high concentrations of methane in the water and sediments, and the specific features of the sedimentary section (the textural and structural features, the character of the mineral inclusions and gas hydrates, and the chemical composition). The component composition of the gases (including the accompanying gas hydrates), which is almost free of heavy hydrocarbon homologues of methane; the light carbon isotopic compositions of the methane and carbonate concretions; and the low temperatures of the near-bottom water and sediments suggest that the occurrence of numerous methane emanations is related to gas generation in the upper part of the sedimentary sequence. No evidence was found for the existence of a deep center of gas formation within the seafloor area considered. Typical submarine mud volcanic edifices were also not found.     

The methane hydrate formation and the resource estimate resulting from free gas migration in seeping seafloor hydrate stability zone

It is a typical multiphase flow process for hydrate formation in seeping seafloor sediments. Free gas can not only be present but also take part in formation of hydrate. The volume fraction of free gas in local pore of hydrate stable zone (HSZ) influences the formation of hydrate in seeping seafloor area, and methane flux determines the abundance and resource of hydrate-bearing reservoirs. In this paper, a multiphase flow model including water (dissolved methane and salt)-free gas hydrate has been established to describe this kind of flow-transfer-reaction process where there exists a large scale of free gas migration and transform in seafloor pore. In the order of three different scenarios, the conversions among permeability, capillary pressure, phase saturations and salinity along with the formation of hydrate have been deducted. Furthermore, the influence of four sorts of free gas saturations and three classes of methane fluxes on hydrate formation and the resource has also been analyzed and compared. Based on the rules drawn from the simulation, and combined information gotten from drills in field, the methane hydrate(MH) formation in Shenhu area of South China Sea has been forecasted. It has been speculated that there may breed a moderate methane flux below this seafloor HSZ. If the flux is about 0.5 kg m⁻² a⁻¹, then it will go on to evolve about 2700 ka until the hydrate saturation in pore will arrive its peak (about 75%). Approximately 1.47 × 10⁹ m³ MH has been reckoned in this marine basin finally, is about 13 times over preliminary estimate.     

Migration of sulfides in works by N.M. Strakhov

Evolution of N.M. Strakhov’s views on the formation of diagenetic sulfides in Holocene-Quaternary rocks of the Black Sea is considered. It is shown that Strakhov actually discarded the statement of A.D. Arkhangel’skii about the migration of hydrotroilite from the Drevnechernomorsk (i.e., ancient Black Sea sediments) to the Neoeuxinian sequence and attribute the generation of sulfides in the hydrotroilite bed to the redox hydrosulfuric barrier. New data on sulfide distribution in Black Sea sediments and concept of ancient Black Sea sediments as semipermeable membranes suggest the decisive role of hydrosulfuric solutions in the generation of sulfide accumulations.     

Gas Sources of Natural Gas Hydrates in the Shenhu Drilling Area, South China Sea: Geochemical Evidence and Geological Analysis

The Shenhu gas hydrate drilling area is located in the central Baiyun sag, Zhu Ⅱ depression, Pearl River Mouth basin, northern South China Sea. The gas compositions contained in the hydrate-bearing zones is dominated by methane with content up to 99.89% and 99.91%. The carbon isotope of the methane (δ13C1 ) are 56.7‰ and 60.9‰, and its hydrogen isotope (δD) are 199‰ and 180‰, respectively, indicating the methane from the microbial reduction of CO2 . Based on the data of measured seafloor temperature and geothermal gradient, the gas formed hydrate reservoirs are from depths 24-1699 m below the seafloor, and main gas-generation zone is present at the depth interval of 416-1165 m. Gas-bearing zones include the Hanjiang Formation, Yuehai Formation, Wanshan Formation and Quaternary sediments. We infer that the microbial gas migrated laterally or vertically along faults (especially interlayer faults), slump structures, small-scale diapiric structures, regional sand beds and sedimentary boundaries to the hydrate stability zone, and formed natural gas hydrates in the upper Yuehai Formation and lower Wanshan Formation, probably with contribution of a little thermogenic gas from the deep sedments during this process.     

Consequences of Water Level Drops for Soft Sediment Deformation and Vertical Fluid Leakage

Both water level drops and erosion have previously been suggested as causes of fluid overpressures in the subsurface. Quantification of the relevance of these processes to supra-lithostatic fluid pressure formation with a wide selection of input parameters is lacking, and thus desired. The magnitudes and drop times that are required for water level drops to result in supra-lithostatic pore pressures in a variety of situations are calculated. Situations with pore fluids consisting of water, water with dissolved methane, water with a gas hydrate layer and dissolved methane in the underlying sediments, and water with dissolved methane, a gas hydrate layer, and free gas accumulation below the hydrate layer are separately addressed. The overpressure formation from reservoir gas expansion is also simulated. The simulation results demonstrate that high fluid overpressures can develop in a rock as a response to a water level drop without the presence of gas, provided that the rock has a sufficiently low compressibility. The contribution to fluid overpressuring is however dramatically increased if the pore water is saturated with methane prior to the water level drop, and is further amplified by the presence of gas hydrates and free gas accumulations beneath such hydrates. Gas expansion in reservoirs should be expected to significantly increase the fluid overpressures in shallow, sealed pressure compartments that experience erosion or water level drops, even if the water level drop duration exceeds one million years. Enough relationships between the calculated overpressure formation and the main controlling factors are provided in order to enable readers to make inferences about a variety of geological settings. Analyses of simulation results prompt us to suggest that pockmarks are likely to be triggered by gas expansion in vertical fluid migration pathways, that the giant craters at the seabed west of Albatross South in the Barents Sea result from hydrate dissociation, and that overpressure build-up due to gas expansion has contributed to reservoir overpressuring in many eroded basins, including the Hammerfest Basin in the Barents Sea.     

Submarine landslide identified in MD179 cores,off-Joetsu area,eastern margin of the Sea of Japan

Gas hydrate is exposed on the sea floor and is buried in shallow sediments in the off-Joetsu area at the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan. Sediment cores recovered from topographic highs of the Joetsu Knoll and Umitaka Spur show pockmarks and mounds formed by gas hydrate dissociation, but those from the Un-named ridge have no such topographic features. All topographic highs and pockmarks mainly comprise bioturbated layers interbedded with thinly laminated (TL) layers, which are common Sea of Japan sediments. Recovered sediments are, however, mostly disturbed by submarine landslides, showing tilted horizons, faults, slump folds, and breccia, except that from the Un-named ridge. The timing of events is well constrained by identification of the number of TL layers in some sediment cores. Landslides occurred both during the cold glacial period of the late MIS3 to the last glacial maximum (LGM) and during the warm interglacial period of the post-LGM. All were caused by the explosive rise of gas hydrate formed at very shallow depths of the sea bottom by the supply of gas from the depth of the gas hydrate stability zone through gas chimney passages developed under the pockmarks. Seismic activity demands consideration as a factor because the off-Joetsu area is tectonically active.     

东海天然气水合物地热研究及其环境意义

依据地热资料研究天然气水合物稳定带厚度在东海海域的分布情况。东海在地质构造上位于新生代环太平洋构造带西部边缘岛弧的内侧,又是欧亚板块、太平洋板块和菲律宾海板块的相互作用带。依据国际热流委员会(IHFC)提供的东海地热数据,经过统计确定出该区域的热流分布,热流平均值为121·0mW/m2,最小值为73·0mW/m2,最大值为168·0mW/m2。同时利用天然气水合物温压模型计算了稳定带厚度,数据显示稳定带厚度平均值为92·2m,最小值为1·4m,最大值为190·6m,薄于其他已经发现的海洋天然气水合物稳定带厚度(约400m)。天然气水合物大部分分布在条件适宜的陆坡和岛坡上,冲绳海槽底部水合物稳定带厚度相对较薄。统计分析表明本区热流值与水合物稳定带厚度相关性很差,相关系数仅有0·12。这是由于天然气水合物所在海域水深较浅时,海底温度的变化迫使运算所应用的非线性方程影响因子迅速积累,从而导致相关系数降低。最后结合东海陆坡的地质条件,探讨了在天然气水合物存在的情况下,陆坡失稳的可能性及其造成的环境影响。     

论河北丰宁牛圈银（金）矿床的成矿时限问题

南沙海槽的构造和沉积受控于南海的构造运动和加里曼丹西北大陆边缘的演化,具有适于天然气水合物形成的物源基础、温压条件、输导系统和储藏场所。似海底反射层(BSR)出现在水深650~2 800 m、海底下65~350 m深的晚中新世沉积物中,与褶皱、逆冲推覆构造及穹窿构造有关;沉积物中的甲烷含量和孔隙水的SO24-含量表现出异常变化特征,硫酸盐-甲烷界面(SMI)深度仅为8~11 m;表层沉积的自生石膏和黄铁矿的成岩环境与甲烷流体排溢引起的厌氧甲烷氧化(AOM)有关,这些地球物理和地球化学指标均指示南沙海槽发育天然气水合物。研究表明,南沙海槽沉积物的甲烷以二氧化碳还原型微生物成因为主,少量为混合气,海槽东南部可能是最有潜力的天然气水合物远景区。     

黑海天然气水合物地质调查现状分析

黑海天然气水合物资源丰富,是我国未来开展国际合作的重要区域.论文系统地总结、分析了黑海地区天然气水合物近50年的地质调查结果,包括天然气水合物的分布、资源潜力和地质调查特点等.分析归纳要点包括:黑海地区天然气水合物类型以Ⅰ型为主,主要赋存在细粒沉积储层中,甲烷资源量最高可达850万亿m3;除俄罗斯外,黑海周边其他各国的调查能力和装备实力相对较弱,各专属海域水合物调查程度较低,资源分布不明;土耳其积极参与国际合作项目,具备一定的调查能力和装备实力,是我国未来合作的重点.     

Did postglacial catastrophic flooding trigger massive changes in the Black Sea gas hydrate reservoir?

After the Last Glacial Maximum, the semi-land-locked Black Sea basin was flooded by warm water from the Mediterranean Sea. This major sea level rise and change of physical water properties had a large impact on the gas hydrate reservoir in the sediments below. Modelling of the regional response of the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) to the Black Sea flooding 7100 years ago shows that a strong effect of near-bottom temperature increase pushes the gas hydrate reservoir to a large shrinking of 15–62% that may release up to 1.1–4.6 Gt of methane. This catastrophic scenario is, however, delayed because of the transient nature of the heat wave propagation. The large-scale reduction of the GHSZ is only to take place within the next thousand years. At present, widespread hydrate dissociation is only expected to occur where there is a minimum water depth for hydrate stability.     

Biogeochemical processes of carbon and sulfur cycles in sediments of the outer shelf of the Black Sea (Russian Sector)

Within the mass of recent (unit-I) and ancient Black Sea (unit-II) sediments on the outer shelf of the Russian sector of the Black Sea, the rates of anoxic processes participating in diagenetic transformations of carbon and sulfur compounds were first measured using ³⁵S and ¹⁴C radioactive tracers. The main energy source for biogeochemical processes in (unit-I) sediments is the organic matter (OM) supplied to the bottom from the water mass. In (unit-II) sediments, this is methane in a migratory form proved by the excess of its oxidation rate over that of its generation. In recent silt, the primary microbial process is sulfate reduction; in unit-II, this is methane anoxic oxidation by the consortium of archeides and sulfate reductants. The organic matter produced in methane oxidation, in turn, acts as an energy source for the community of anaerobic heterotrophic microorganisms in the bottom sediments, which are remote from the water-sediment interface.     

Progress in Global Gas Hydrate Development and Production as a New Energy Resource

Natural gas hydrates have been hailed as a new and promising unconventional alternative energy, especially as fossil fuels approach depletion, energy consumption soars, and fossil fuel prices rise, owing to their extensive distribution, abundance, and high fuel efficiency. Gas hydrate reservoirs are similar to a storage cupboard in the global carbon cycle, containing most of the world’s methane and accounting for a third of Earth’s mobile organic carbon. We investigated gas hydrate stability zone burial depths from the viewpoint of conditions associated with stable existence of gas hydrates, such as temperature, pressure, and heat flow, based on related data collected by the global drilling programs. Hydrate-related areas are estimated using various biological, geochemical and geophysical tools. Based on a series of previous investigations, we cover the history and status of gas hydrate exploration in the USA, Japan, South Korea, India, Germany, the polar areas, and China. Then, we review the current techniques for hydrate exploration in a global scale. Additionally, we briefly review existing techniques for recovering methane from gas hydrates, including thermal stimulation, depressurization, chemical injection, and CH4–CO2 exchange, as well as corresponding global field trials in Russia, Japan, United States, Canada and China. In particular, unlike diagenetic gas hydrates in coarse sandy sediments in Japan and gravel sediments in the United States and Canada, most gas hydrates in the northern South China Sea are non-diagenetic and exist in fine-grained sediments with a vein-like morphology. Therefore, especially in terms of the offshore production test in gas hydrate reservoirs in the Shenhu area in the north slope of the South China Sea, Chinese scientists have proposed two unprecedented techniques that have been verified during the field trials: solid fluidization and formation fluid extraction. Herein, we introduce the two production techniques, as well as the so-called “four-in-one” environmental monitoring system employed during the Shenhu production test. Methane is not currently commercially produced from gas hydrates anywhere in the world; therefore, the objective of field trials is to prove whether existing techniques could be applied as feasible and economic production methods for gas hydrates in deep-water sediments and permafrost zones. Before achieving commercial methane recovery from gas hydrates, it should be necessary to measure the geologic properties of gas hydrate reservoirs to optimize and improve existing production techniques. Herein, we propose horizontal wells, multilateral wells, and cluster wells improved by the vertical and individual wells applied during existing field trials. It is noteworthy that relatively pure gas hydrates occur in seafloor mounds, within near-surface sediments, and in gas migration conduits. Their extensive distribution, high saturation, and easy access mean that these types of gas hydrate may attract considerable attention from academia and industry in the future. Herein, we also review the occurrence and development of concentrated shallow hydrate accumulations and briefly introduce exploration and production techniques. In the closing section, we discuss future research needs, key issues, and major challenges related to gas hydrate exploration and production. We believe this review article provides insight on past, present, and future gas hydrate exploration and production to provide guidelines and stimulate new work into the field of gas hydrates.     

南海北部白云凹陷08CF7岩心沉积物的磁化率特征及其意义

海洋沉积物的磁性异常与甲烷渗漏活动及其产物密切相关。为揭示南海北部天然气水合物区沉积物磁化率的变化特征及其意义,对白云凹陷08CF7岩心331个沉积物样品的磁化率进行测定和分析。08CF7岩心沉积物磁化率变化范围为554×10-6~2656×10-6SI,平均值为1141×10-6SI。磁化率随深度变化可分为0~188 cm、188~240 cm及240 cm以下等3段,分别与硫酸盐富集带、硫酸盐-甲烷转换界面(SMT)的上部过渡带及SMT相对应。研究表明,海底天然气渗漏是08CF7岩心沉积物磁化率异常变化的可能原因,其机理是：在强烈的还原环境中,甲烷厌氧氧化反应的产物HS-与沉积物中的Fe3+发生反应,形成顺磁性的黄铁矿。沉积物磁化率变化能快速了解SMT状况及其深度,提供了一种识别南海北部天然气水合物的间接方法。     

Age, thermal evolution and history of the Black Sea Basin based on heat flow and multichannel reflection data

Multichannel reflection data (Tugolessov et al., 1985) have revealed two deeps in the basement topography of the Black Sea which are filled with sediments from 12 to 15 km thick. The deeps lack the “granitic layer” and are underlain by oceanic-type crust which we assume to be generated by seafloor spreading processes. The age of the deeps was interpreted previously, in a highly controversial manner, as being from the Paleozoic — Early Mesozoic to the Recent. In the paper, age estimations were undertaken using surficial heat flow data, assuming that they are related to deep-seated age-dependent heat flow generated by the cooling oceanic lithosphere, but that they are strongly distorted by the heating of continuously accumulating sediments as well as by additional heat input from radiogenic production within sediments. Using reliable thermophysical parameters of compacting sediments, the distorted heat flow in the sediments was evaluated numerically. This allowed us to estimate the age of the Black Sea deeps floor. The results show that the West Black Sea deep is 130 to 95 m.y. old, and the East Black Sea deep is nearly 110 m.y. old. These figures support an interpretation of the Black Sea deeps as remnants of a Late Mesozoic back-arc basin that evolved behind the Lesser Caucasian — Pontide island arc. The inferred Middle Cretaceous age of the deeps is the first estimate obtained quantitatively, and corresponds well with available heat flow and multichannel reflection data.     

中国南海天然气水合物沉积成藏条件初探及其分布

中国南海是西太平洋最大的边缘海之一 ,具备良好的天然气水合物成藏条件和勘探前景。根据沉积条件 (沉积速率、沉积相和含砂率等 )分析 ,综合多方面的地质条件 ,认为气水合物存在于水深30 0～ 35 0 0m的区域 ;陆坡和靠近沉积中心的高沉积速率的厚层沉积为天然气水合物聚集的有利部位 ,与BSR分布的吻合率在 6 0 %～ 80 %之间 ;等深流、重力流沉积和各类扇体 (如三角洲、扇三角洲、低位扇等 )的前缘为水合物沉积的有利相带 ,与BSR分布的吻合率在 5 0 %～ 75 %之间 ;赋存气水合物的沉积物的含砂率通常在 35 %～ 70 %之间。依据多方面资料的研究 ,在南海海域划分出 1 1个有利的天然气水合物勘探远景区块 ,面积共 1 2 .5 (± 1 .5 )× 1 0 4km2 ,约占整个南海总面积的 3.6 %。     

A seeping sea-floor in a Ria environment: Ria de Vigo (NW Spain)

 The occurrence of gas accumulations in the Ría de Vigo (NW Spain) have been characterized by the authors in previous research. Pockmarks frequently appear on seismic and sonar records, covering ca. 45% of the sea-floor of the study area, which indicates that gas expulsion is not an uncommon phenomena in the coastal Ría environment. Here we report the occurrence of gas seepage for the first time along the coast of NW Spain. Side-scan sonar, echo-sounder and high-resolution seismic techniques, were used for mapping gas-expulsion features. Some expulsion pockmarks sit over elongated features that represent bottom marks created by anthropogenic activity. Thus, these anthropogenic sites may act as preferential venting zones for gas, as well as being potential hazards on a muddy sea-bed such as that of the Ría where gas accumulates just below the surface of the sea-floor. Received: 25 May 1998 · Accepted: 20 November 1998