台湾岛以南海域新近纪的弧-陆碰撞造山作用

台湾岛以南海域(台南滨海)弧—陆碰撞带位于欧亚板块、菲律宾海板块和南海的结合部位,是新近纪弧—陆碰撞研究的理想场所。本文通过对南海973航次在该区域的多道地震剖面的解释,认为台南滨海弧—陆碰撞带增生的火山—沉积楔由恒春海脊和高屏斜坡两部分组成,前者是菲律宾海板块的增生楔,后者是欧亚板块的增生楔,在增生楔体和火山弧之间是作为弧前盆地的北吕宋海槽。自中新世中期以来,南海洋壳开始沿着马尼拉海沟向菲律宾海板块俯冲,形成活动大陆边缘的增生部分——恒春海脊;与此同时菲律宾海板块开始向北西方向移动,前缘的吕宋岛弧距今6.5Ma以来朝着亚洲陆缘斜向汇聚,形成了被动大陆边缘的增生部分——高屏斜坡。由于菲律宾海板块和欧亚板块之间的斜向汇聚,弧—陆碰撞具有穿时性,造山作用首先发生在台湾岛的北部,然后向南部及台南滨海发展。     

琼东南盆地东西部块体流沉积内部结构特征的差异性

利用南海北部琼东南盆地的高精度2D和3D地震资料,对盆地不同区域里的陆坡到深水盆地的块体流沉积特征进行了研究。结果发现,琼东南盆地东部和西部陆坡体系发育的块体流沉积表现出不同的特征:盆地东部陆坡体系下块体流沉积头部以变形程度较小的滑移体的广泛发育为特征,整体规模较小;盆地西部块体流沉积头部以变形强烈的杂乱反射为特征,侵蚀作用强烈,规模较大,同时在其趾部变形强烈的地层中发育有一系列平行、亚平行的逆冲断层。琼东南盆地东西部块体流沉积特征差异性产生的原因有:1)盆地东西部陆坡沉积格架不同,西部的陡倾陆坡比东部的宽缓陆坡更加有利于块体流沉积的发育;2)盆地地貌特征对块体流沉积发育的制约,琼东南盆地南部隆起对块体流沉积起到遮挡的作用,阻止了西部块体流的运动。陆架边缘断层活化相关的地震活动是块体流沉积的一个重要触发机制。     

坦桑尼亚滨海盆地陆坡峡谷沉积特征及其控制因素*

东非陆缘深水盆地具有巨大油气资源潜力,但对陆坡峡谷沉积特征研究较少,制约有利储集层预测。本研究利用三维地震资料,对东非坦桑尼亚滨海盆地陆坡峡谷开展精细研究。结果表明:(1)研究区陆坡发育多条大型海底峡谷;上陆坡处,坡度较陡,峡谷内以侵蚀作用为主,沉积物主要局限在褶皱推覆带的翼部;褶皱推覆带之外的下陆坡区,坡度变缓,峡谷末端发育席状砂质沉积及砂泥混杂的碎屑流沉积,同时在峡谷北侧发育向北延伸的泥质漂积体;在陆坡边缘,发育海底滑塌,形成块体搬运沉积。(2)峡谷沉积受陆源物质供给、褶皱推覆带、北大西洋底流以及陆坡边界断层等因素控制。受东非裂谷海域分支活动影响,研究区陆架窄、陆坡陡,陆源物质可迅速通过陆架,进入陆坡峡谷:与河流相连的峡谷,物源充足、规模较大,有沉积物发育而没有与河流直接相连的峡谷物源有限、规模较小,峡谷内无明显沉积;褶皱推覆带通过改变海底地形来控制峡谷内沉积分布,褶皱翼部发育沉积,核部则以侵蚀为主;褶皱推覆带外,北大西洋底流与峡谷末端重力流发生交互作用,细粒物质被搬运至峡谷北岸形成漂积体;陆坡边缘断层活跃,峡谷被断层切割,形成断崖,并引发海底滑塌,陆坡处不发育水道及朵体沉积,陆源物质通过峡谷被搬运至更深的深海盆地内。     

南海西北陆缘深水沉积体系内部构成特征

深水沉积是近年来我国海域油气勘探重点之一,利用高精度二维和三维地震剖面的精细解剖,揭示了南海西北陆缘区深水沉积体系类型及其内部构成特征.这些深水地区除堆积正常深海-半深海泥岩外,还发育大量深水重力流沉积,包括块体流沉积、深水峡谷、沉积物波等大型沉积体.研究表明,南海西北陆缘区发育4类陆坡, 即进积型、滑塌型、水道化型、宽缓渐变型陆坡.不同陆坡类型具有不同地貌形态,发育不同的沉积体类型.大型块体流沉积主要发育于滑塌型和水道化型陆坡,沉积物波主要发育于宽缓渐变型陆坡下部及深海中央峡谷长昌段的周缘地区.由于南海西北陆缘自晚中新世以来形成向东开口的喇叭形变深的地貌形态,导致在盆地中央形成了独特的与陆坡走向一致的深海峡谷体系——中央峡谷.该峡谷的沉积充填不仅包括来自于西部峡谷头部的浊积水道沉积,还包括来自于北部陆坡的块体流沉积,特别是来自于滑塌型陆坡的块体流沉积.中央峡谷体系构成了西北陆缘区多源汇聚的深水沉积物输送系统,同时也是南海西北陆缘深水区重要的油气储层发育层系.      

红河断裂带莺歌海段地质构造特征

红河入海后的地质构造特征研究是当前红河断裂带研究的薄弱环节.结合莺歌海地区重力和地震资料解释与前人研究成果,系统总结了红河断裂带莺歌海盆地内的几何学、运动学特征,并根据莺歌海盆地沉积中心迁移规律获得了红河断裂带的年代学数据.研究认为:红河断裂带在入海口附近分叉,其中Tien Lang断层折向NE,呈马尾状展布;在莺歌海盆地内红河断裂带分支为A(Ⅰ号断层)、B、C和D(莺西断层)4条断层,其中A断层是最主要的一条分支断层.莺歌海盆地内的分支断层均呈近NW-SE走向,延伸420～500km,其地震解释剖面上发育的典型花状构造和马尾状Tien Lang断层共同指示该断层具有走滑运动性质;红河断裂带对莺歌海盆地的沉积具有明显的控制作用,盆地沉积中心变化规律揭示红河断裂带在30～15.5Ma期间具有左行走滑运动性质,15.5～5.5Ma期间为左行向右行转换阶段,发生了强烈的构造反转作用,5.5Ma以来具有右行走滑运动特征.     

琼东南盆地陆坡体系发育特征及其控制因素

琼东南盆地位于南海北部大陆边缘,是发育于前古近系基底之上的裂陷盆地,自中新世以来进入裂后沉降期。10.5Ma以来,随着盆地演化进入加速沉降阶段,盆地水深迅速增大,陆坡体系开始发育。根据陆坡体系的外部形态及其内部沉积构成特征,在空间上自西向东可以将其划分为3段,盆地西部陆坡以快速进积的陆坡楔状体为主要特征;盆地中部陆坡以陡倾的陆坡角度,大量的陆坡峡谷、沟谷和大规模的沉积物重力流等陆坡沉积为特征;盆地东部陆坡以宽缓的陆坡形态为主要特征。研究表明,沉积物供给和断裂活动对陆坡体系的发育都具有重要的控制作用;同时,陆坡发育时期所经历的沉积过程、古地貌形态和相对海平面变化对陆坡体系的发育也具有一定的控制作用。     

深水重要油气储层--琼东南盆地中央峡谷体系

南海北部海域琼东南盆地发育一个大型中央峡谷体系,平面上呈“S”型NE向展布,西起莺歌海盆地中央拗陷带东缘,横穿琼东南盆地中央拗陷带,向东延伸进入西沙海槽。通过2D及3D地震资料的精细解释和钻井资料综合分析,研究揭示该峡谷体系可以划分为4个区段,不同区段不仅具有明显不同的剖面形态,而且具有不同沉积物构成、沉积微相以及不同沉积物源。不同区域峡谷形态及充填分析表明,自西向东,中央峡谷下切深度越来越大,下切层位越来越老。其下切剖面形态发育有“V”、“U”、“W”和复合型。其中“V”型峡谷下切深度最大,冲刷、削截特征最明显。峡谷西段以浊积水道沉积为主,峡谷东段为浊积水道与块体流沉积互层沉积,但在不同区带不同沉积物所占比例有一定差异。浊积水道沉积的物源主要来自于盆地西侧,块体流沉积的物源主要来自于盆地北部陆坡体系,从而,来自于西部浊积水道沉积与来自于北部块体流沉积在中央峡谷内形成了多源多期发育的复杂的峡谷系统。     

琼东南盆地中央峡谷西段莺歌海组沉积演化及储层预测

发育于琼东南盆地乐东凹陷、陵水凹陷、松南低凸起的中央峡谷西段,早期充填了厚达700 m的深海重力流沉积.基于两口钻井和两块三维地震资料,对研究区内中央峡谷早期的沉积演化进行了研究.通过分析地震剖面波组特征和对比井震资料,将峡谷充填划分为5个沉积期次;在井震对比的基础上,结合反射特征、地震切片及属性分析,识别出四种主要的沉积类型:水道复合体、水道-天然堤、浊积席状砂、块体流.沉积期次1主要为水道复合体,沉积期次2和3主要为水道-天然堤,沉积期次4主要为块体流和水道-天然堤,沉积期次5主要为块体流和浊积席状砂.峡谷DS1~DS3主要受轴向物源控制,以浊流沉积为主,富砂;DS4~DS5逐渐受北部陆坡物源控制,以块体流沉积为主,富泥.浊流沉积是峡谷内优良的储集体,普遍发育于峡谷充填下部,与上部块体流沉积可以形成良好的储盖组合,具有较好的油气勘探潜力.     

南海西北部中建南海底峡谷群的发现及演化特征

在南海西北部首次发现中建南峡谷群,目前对其地质信息尚未开展相关研究.综合利用水深地形数据和二维多道地震资料,主要分析中建南峡谷群的地形地貌特征、平面展布与分段性特点,精细刻画峡谷沉积充填结构及演化特征,再进一步讨论峡谷形成的控制因素.中建南海底峡谷群分布于中建阶地与中建北海台之间,它是由西侧的一条主轴峡谷和东侧的多条小型分支峡谷组成,整体呈SE-S-SE走向,以走向转折拐点为起点,将峡谷分为三段式:北段、中段和南段,北段以侵蚀作用为主,中段和南段主要受侵蚀作用、沉积作用,东南部的峡谷口外主要受沉积作用.研究区晚中新世?第四纪时广泛分布峡谷沉积体系,包括半深海相、三角洲相、峡谷/水道充填相、滑塌相、块体搬运复合沉积和浊积扇相.揭示了该海底峡谷群的发育和演化主要受海平面变化、沉积物源供给和重力流、底流作用的控制.通过对该峡谷群的地形地貌和沉积演化特征的分析,将对海洋地质灾害、南海深水沉积体系研究及油气资源勘探有重要的科学意义.      

日本南海海槽俯冲增生楔前缘的构造变形特征

对增生楔不同压力—温度条件下的构造变形、流体活动、沉积特征、岩石物性和化学组成等多方面的直接观测,可以帮助分析俯冲带地震的蕴育和发生的环境与机理。通过参加IODP的日本南海海槽发震带研究项目(NanTroSEIZE)第一阶段316航次所收集到的大量第一手数据和资料,分别在4个站位上(C0004,C0006,C0007,C0008)对日本南海海槽增生楔前缘岩芯尺度上的构造变形进行了详细分析,并且讨论了岩芯尺度上的构造变形与增生楔中大尺度的非序列分支逆冲断层和前缘逆冲断层的构造变形之间的关系。发现逆冲变形不是只在大尺度的逆冲断层面上进行,而是弥散分布在主逆冲断层面、次级逆冲断层面以及断层面之间的更小的尺度上。小尺度构造的倾向与大尺度断层的倾向有较好的一致性,表明它们是在相同的应力场下所形成的。在增生楔浅部高角度的正断层比较发育,显示张性应力场特征,同时所获得的岩芯尺度上的地层倾角较大并倾向与反射地震以及区域地质分析结果非常吻合,而在深部,特别是在大尺度逆冲断层发育带附近,各种类型的断层、滑移变形带、节理等非常普遍,同时层理与劈理的产状的复杂变化更多地受控于复杂的逆冲断层带的作用。     

Space—time correlations between inland earthquakes in central Japan and great offshore earthquakes along the Nankai trough: Implication for destructive earthquake prediction

Based on the tectonic framework of central Japan, including the surrounding submarine areas, the space-time relationship between destructive inland earthquakes of magnitudesM 6.4 or greater and great offshore earthquakes along the Nankai trough was examined. From east to west, four tectonic lines are defined as lines linking active faults: the Itoigawa-Shizuoka tectonic line (ISTL), the Tsurugawan-Isewan tectonic line (TITL), the Hanaore-Kongo fault line (HKFL), and the Arima-Takatsuki tectonic line (ATTL). The TITL divides central Japan into the Chubu and Kinki districts, and probably extends southward to the Nankai trough. The Chubu district is subdivided into four blocks by boundary lines linking NW-SE trending active faults having left-lateral strike slip. In the Kinki district, N-S trending, active reverse, steep-dip faults are dominant in the triangular region north of the Median Tectonic line, between the TITL and HKFL, forming a basin-and-range province.

Starting from 1586 A.D., a seismic space-time sequence of high seismic activity in the Chubu district in which earthquake occurrence migrates from the eastern to western tectonic lines of central Japan was identified. The sequence also revealed that inland earthquakes preceded great offshore earthquakes which occurred along the Nankai trough. It was also found that a destructive earthquake tends to occur on the HKFL within 30 years after the occurrence on the TITL, and that the western Nankai trough generated great earthquakes ofM≥7.0 at intervals ranging from 8 to 49 years after the HKFL earthquakes. If the eastern Nankai trough is coupled with the western Nankai trough, a forthcoming greater earthquake measuringM 8.5 may be expected. Since such great earthquakes are always accompanied by large tsunamis, much attention should be focussed on possible tsunami disasters along the Pacific coast of central Japan.

Based on its tectonic structure, a tectonic model of central Japan is proposed. The seismic space-time sequence, which attempts to explain the cause of the sequential earthquake generation, is also discussed.     

南海北部琼东南盆地第四系陆架边缘轨迹迁移及深水沉积模式

陆架边缘迁移轨迹综合受控于构造、物源、海平面和气候等多种因素,其迁移演化与深水沉积体系发育关系密切。陆架边缘迁移规律及沉积物输送体制与深水砂体预测是当前国际地学领域的热点议题。本文通过基于琼东南盆地新采集的高精度地震资料,定量表征了第四系陆架边缘轨迹,识别了低角度缓慢上升型、中等角度上升型和高角度急剧上升型等3类陆架边缘轨迹类型。2.4 Ma以来,陆架边缘轨迹时空演化可分为3个阶段且具有侧向差异性:2.4~1.9 Ma以低角度缓慢上升型为主,1.9~0.8 Ma西北部以低角度缓慢上升型为主,东北部则以中等角度上升型为主,0.8 Ma至今西北部以中等角度上升型为主,东北部以高角度急剧上升型为主。琼东南盆地第四系陆架边缘迁移轨迹研究表明:当陆架边缘轨迹角0°<α<4°时,陆坡区峡谷规模较小且下切浅,深海平原区发育多期大型海底扇沉积,块体搬运沉积(MTDs)较少;当4°<α<35°时,陆坡区峡谷规模有所增加,深海平原区海底扇沉积与块体搬运沉积均有出现;当35°<α<90°时,陆坡区峡谷发育较少但下切深,深水平原区沉积以大型块体搬运沉积为主,海底扇几乎不发育。琼东南盆地更新世以来气温不断下降,以及东亚冬季风的显著增强,物源供给增强加之海平面的下降进而导致了西北部陆架边缘表现为进积特征;研究区东北部的断裂活动频繁以及物源供给弱,导致了研究区东北部陆坡推进距离远远小于研究区西北部且发育多期次块体搬运沉积物。以上认识对南海北部陆架边缘体系及深水扇预测具有一定的理论意义。     

Sediment dispersal and accumulation in tectonic accommodation across the Gaoping Slope,offshore Southwestern Taiwan

Distribution and architecture of slope basins across a continental slope vary as a consequence of accommodation forming, sediment dispersal rates, canyon cutting, sediment filling and different sediment transporting mechanisms. The area offshore Southwestern Taiwan is generally recognized as having active tectonics and high sediment deposition rates. In the Gaoping Slope, slope basins are formed by the developments of folds, faults and diapiric intrusions. Portions of the sediments discharged from the Taiwan mountain belt have been trapped in these basins in the Gaoping Shelf and Gaoping Slope. The rest of the sediments were transported to deep sea areas through submarine canyons. This complex system of folds, faults, diapirs, slope basins, submarine canyons, and sediment deposits has also readjusted the morphology of the Gaoping Slope. This study examines the linkage between accommodation spaces of tectonic and sedimentary processes in the Gaoping Slope through seismic facies analysis. Four seismic facies which include convergent-symmetrical facies, convergent-baselapping facies, chaotic facies, and parallel and drape facies, and different deposition patterns have been recognized in the Gaoping Slope basins. The thick mud layers which are regarded as the source of diapiric intrusions are first observed beneath the basin. Strata records show that the accommodation spaces in various slope basins have increased or decreased during different stages of basin evolution. Because of the competition between regional tectonism (accommodation space variations) and sediment routing distance from provenance to depository (sediment input variations), most under-filled basins lie in the lower slope domain in the Gaoping Slope, but also in the upper slope domain east of the Gaoping Submarine Canyon. This observation suggests that in the inner Gaoping Slope west of the Gaoping Submarine Canyon, sediment deposition rate is higher than the basin subsidence rate, the topography of the upper slope domain there is “healed”, and most sediments are overfilled in the slope basins now. Besides the sequential steps of sedimentary disposal in the filling-and-spilling model, we have also observed evidences which indicate that mass movements and submarine canyons in the area have significantly changed the sediment dispersal patterns in the slope basins of the Gaoping Slope. We suggest that although filling-and-spilling is a key sedimentary process in the Gaoping Slope, tectonic activities, mass wasting events and canyon feeding processes have diversified sediment transporting mechanisms from the inner to outer slopes in the area offshore Southwest Taiwan.     

琼东南盆地中央峡谷体系东段形态-充填特征及其地质意义

通过对琼东南盆地东部水深数据和高精度地震资料的综合分析,对盆地东段中央峡谷体系的形态特征和内部充填结构进行了详细的描述和刻画。研究结果显示:琼东南盆地中央峡谷体系东段呈NEE向分布于长昌凹陷中央,峡谷具有相对笔直的通道,较为狭窄,剖面上表现为明显的“V型”形态,两侧发育陡峭的峡谷侧壁;东段峡谷的内部充填沉积物由滞留沉积体、块体流-席状砂复合体、浊流沉积体和垮塌沉积体构成,垂向上显示出多期的形成演化过程。形态特征和充填结构表明,盆地东段峡谷主要受到该区域古地貌特征的影响和控制,形成于晚中新世早期的长条状负地形为中央峡谷的形成提供了有利的空间,限制了盆地东段峡谷的形态特征,该地貌特征将持续影响峡谷内部的沉积物输送和堆积样式。更新世以来充分的沉积物供给在陆架坡折处形成了大量的陆坡峡谷,沉积物以垂向输送的方式沿着坡降向下运移,在下陆坡位置形成现代深水扇,并被现今中央峡谷的头部区域所捕获,在地貌特征的限制下,沉积物将发生转向输送,沿着盆地东段峡谷的走向,自西向东发生轴向运移。盆地东段构造控制型峡谷是造成琼东南盆地东西部中央峡谷体系在形态和充填上具有明显差异的原因。研究区内3种不同的现代沉积物输送方式,对于更好地理解盆地西部沉积物运移和西段峡谷的形成过程也具有一定的指示和对比意义。     

南海西沙海域东岛北峡谷体系形态、演化及其成因机制

海底峡谷是全球大陆边缘分布较广泛的地貌单元,是地形地貌、深水沉积和海洋地质灾害领域研究的重要内容。本研究基于高分辨率多波束测深和二维地震资料,以南海西沙东部海域为研究区,深入剖析了东岛北海底峡谷体系。东岛北海底峡谷分布在水深1000～3150 m范围,长度137 km,下切深度70～400 m,表现出西高东低的地形特征,总体由一条主峡谷和4条分支峡谷构成。峡谷上游有东岛西北部Ⅰ区和永兴海台东部Ⅱ区的沉积物供给,峡谷中游加入了东岛东北部Ⅲ区供给的沉积物。3个物源区的沉积物供应以线状的峡谷、水道和面状的块体流沉积类型为主。主峡谷北坡周缘分布有大量的海底麻坑,侧壁呈阶梯状不断后撤垮塌,因重力驱动作用和水流侵蚀,使峡谷壁外缘发育呈不规则小型“枝杈”状水道;主峡谷南岸因浊流作用,发育沉积物波。NE走向主断裂,控制着主干峡谷NE方向延伸,而峡谷南岸分布海山和海丘地形、岩浆底辟,影响主峡谷各分段的转向;同时峡谷和周缘下部地层发育的断层,控制峡谷侧壁向谷底呈阶梯状下降。     

Mid-Quaternary decoupling of sediment routing in the Nankai Forearc revealed by provenance analysis of turbiditic sands

Coring during Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expeditions 315, 316, and 333 recovered turbiditic sands from the forearc Kumano Basin (Site C0002), a Quaternary slope basin (Site C0018), and uplifted trench wedge (Site C0006) along the Kumano Transect of the Nankai Trough accretionary wedge offshore of southwest Japan. The compositions of the submarine turbiditic sands here are investigated in terms of bulk and heavy mineral modal compositions to identify their provenance and dispersal mechanisms, as they may reflect changes in regional tectonics during the past ca. 1.5 Myrs. The results show a marked change in the detrital signature and heavy mineral composition in the forearc and slope basin facies around 1 Ma. This sudden change is interpreted to reflect a major change in the sand provenance, rather than heavy mineral dissolution and/or diagenetic effects, in response to changing tectonics and sedimentation patterns. In the trench-slope basin, the sands older than 1 Ma were probably eroded from the exposed Cretaceous–Tertiary accretionary complex of the Shimanto Belt and transported via the former course of the Tenryu submarine canyon system, which today enters the Nankai Trough northeast of the study area. In contrast, the high abundance of volcanic lithics and volcanic heavy mineral suites of the sands younger than 1 Ma points to a strong volcanic component of sediment derived from the Izu-Honshu collision zones and probably funnelled to this site through the Suruga Canyon. However, sands in the forearc basin show persistent presence of blue sodic amphiboles across the 1 Ma boundary, indicating continuous flux of sediments from the Kumano/Kinokawa River. This implies that the sands in the older turbidites were transported by transverse flow down the slope. The slope basin facies then switched to reflect longitudinal flow around 1 Ma, when the turbiditic sand tapped a volcanic provenance in the Izu-Honshu collision zone, while the sediments transported transversely became confined in the Kumano Basin. Therefore, the change in the depositional systems around 1 Ma is a manifestation of the decoupling of the sediment routing pattern from transverse to long-distance axial flow in response to forearc high uplift along the megasplay fault.     

Facies pattern of the middle Permian Barren Measures Formation, Jharia basin, India: The sedimentary response to basin tectonics

In the Lower Gondwana succession of the Jharia basin of eastern India, the Barren Measures Formation is characterized by the cyclic disposition of fine-grained lacustrine deposits and relatively coarse-grained fluvial deposits. The cyclic variation in the rate of coarse clastic input is attributed to the sedimentary response to basin tectonics. The sandstone-shale alternations of the Barren Measures succession can be correlated with the tectonic cyclothems developed on the hangingwall dip-slope and adjoining trough in a continental half-graben setting. Enhancement of the gradient of the hangingwall dip-slope during reactivation of the basin margin faults led to progradation of the existing fluvial system towards the half-graben trough and deposition of the coarser clastics on the fine-grained lacustrine deposits of the trough. Peneplanation of the hangingwall slope and slow increase in the lake level caused lacustrine transgression and retrogration of the fluvial system on the hangingwall block. The fluvial sediments were onlapped by the fine-grained lacustrine deposits. Episodic rejuvenation of the basin margin faults thus caused development of tectonic cyclothem on the hangingwall block. The paleocurrent pattern indicates that a persistent northward paleoslope was maintained during Barren Measures sedimentation. The inferred depositional settings were much more extensive than the present limit of the outcrop. The faults, presently defining the northern limit of the Barren Measures Formation, were possibly emplaced after Barren Measures sedimentation. The final movement along these fault planes caused preservation of the downthrown hangingwall block and the Barren Measures sediments on the footwall block were eroded during subsequent denudation. The Southern Boundary Fault came into existence after the deposition of the Barren Measures sediments.