Selection of regional historical rainfall time series as input to urban drainage simulations at ungauged locations

It has become established practice during the past 20 years to use high-resolution historical rainfall time series as input to hydrological model packages for detailed simulation of urban drainage systems. However, sufficiently long rain series are rarely available from the exact catchment in question and simulations are hence often based on available rain series from other locations. Extreme rainfall properties of importance to the performance of urban storm drainage systems vary significantly even in regions with only minor physiographic differences. Part of this variation can be explained by regional variations of the mean annual rainfall and the remaining statistical residue can be interpreted as statistical uncertainty.In Denmark, more than 75 high-resolution rain gauges are installed across a total area of 43,000 m. About 40 gauges had sufficiently long records to be included in a comprehensive national investigation where newly developed statistical regionalisation procedures were used to model the regional variation of extreme rainfalls. On this basis, a spreadsheet model was made available for estimation of extreme design rainfalls and the associated uncertainty at any location in the country. Statistics were furthermore computed to classify historical rainfall time series according to the developed regional model, and this makes it possible to assess the uncertainty related with using different historical rain series for simulations at ungauged locations.This research indicates that use of historical point rainfall data at ungauged locations introduces a significant uncertainty that is largely overlooked in today's practice. The engineering recommendation is to select historical rain series based on an evaluation of the local physiographic characteristics (e.g., the mean annual rainfall) and a (pre-defined) desired safety level of the simulations.     

Satellite estimates and subpixel variability of rainfall in a semi-arid grassland

卫星估雨精度的不确定性受到当地降雨类型和像元内降雨非均匀性影响,而结合这两个关键因素开展半干旱草原卫星估雨的研究有限.2009年夏,我们在中国锡林郭勒半干旱草原用多部微雨雷达和雨量计构建了9 km卫星像元降雨观测网,观测了像元内降雨非均匀性(空间变异系数CV),并评估了卫星估雨精度.结果表明:(1)CV值受像元内平均降雨量,降雨类型,降雨云面积及移向等影响,如高Cv值的降雨过程大多为平均降雨量小,对流性降雨过程,降雨云边缘像元CV值较高;(2)TRMM 3B42V7卫星估雨产品适用性较好,CMORPH和PERSIANN次之,但TRMM 3B42V7易在半干旱草原湖泊处高估降雨.     

Calibration of tipping bucket rain gauges in the Graz urban research area

The Institute of Urban Water Management and Landscape Water Engineering of the Graz University of Technology (Austria) operates a hydrological research area in the City of Graz. In this urban research area precipitation and runoff data are collected by order of the municipality of Graz. At present precipitation data are measured by seven tipping bucket rain gauges. Comparative measurements have shown a deviation between the recorded and the actual precipitation intensity. This made the institute calibrate the rain gauges periodically. In the middle of the 1990s, the development of a field calibration kit was started. Based on the experiences with the first field calibration kit, a microprocessor controlled device was developed. With this calibration device, the tipping bucket rain gauges are calibrated at regular intervals. In this paper the calibration process and the current results for seven rain gauges are discussed. The calibration process is dynamic calibration and uses a peristaltic pump. Not all of the tipping buckets investigated underestimate the rain intensity in the whole measuring range. Several rain gauges have a positive relative deviation, not exceeding 22%, in the low intensity range up to 0.5 mm/min. Positive deviation can be explained by retention of water in the buckets between tips. The reason for the negative deviation is the loss of water during the tips. It leads to the underestimate of the actual intensity. The largest relative deviation in the range of underestimate exceeds 30%. In the range of extreme intensities, the larger buckets (5 cm³) show a lower relative deviation than the smaller (2 cm³) buckets. The gauge characteristic can change in favourable or unfavourable directions after several years. Therefore, the calibration of tipping buckets is recommended at least every 2 to 3 years.     

北方降水性层状云人工增雨潜力区的逐步判别研究

利用1991~1999年9年间飞机人工增雨外场试验期间长春市气象局07:00或19:00(北京时，下同) 的701测风雷达和吉林省气象台713数字化雷达观测资料，依据穿云实际宏观观测资料将增雨潜力区分为:Ⅰ级（较大）和Ⅱ级（较小）。然后应用逐步判别方法求得500 hPa风速的南风分量、回波顶高度、负温层回波厚度/正温层回波厚度、0℃层高度/回波顶高共4个气象因子参加的两组判别函数S1、S2。再用Microsoft VB6.0可视化编程语言，以作业前最近时次探空报中500 hPa风向风速和雷达回波参数为基础将全省划分成9个催化作业区域，根据云系主体回波所在区域，对预催化或正在催化的层状云系进行自动解报、逐步判别方程计算和增雨潜力的自动显示。     

湖南省雨滴谱仪与常规降水观测对比分析

湖南省97个国家气象站自2017年开始陆续安装了雨滴谱仪,2018年1月1日起进行平行观测。为分析评估其探测降水量的准确性,选取湖南省12个国家站2018年雨滴谱仪观测资料和自动站翻斗雨量计小时降水资料,从总体观测误差、不同降水量级下观测误差和累积降水量观测误差3个方面进行对比分析,结果表明：（1）雨滴谱仪小时降水量和翻斗雨量计小时降水量存在显著的相关性,R2平均为0.94,其中南岳站R2最低为0.90,浏阳站R2最高为0.98,12个站的小时降水量绝对偏差均值为0.34mm;（2）当小时降水量Rh<1.0mm时,各站雨滴谱仪降水量较翻斗雨量计降水量平均偏大0.05mm,且平均差值绝对值均在0.2mm以下;当1.0mm≤Rh<2.6mm时,大部分站点雨滴谱降水量均大于或与翻斗雨量计降水量相当;当2.6mm≤Rh<5.0mm时,株洲和南岳站雨滴谱降水量较翻斗雨量计降水量明显偏小,武冈和娄底站雨滴谱仪降水量则明显偏高;当5.0mm≤Rh<8.0mm时,除株洲和南岳站外,其它各站雨滴谱降水量均大于或与翻斗雨量计降水量相当;当8.0mm≤Rh<16.0mm 时,除株洲和南岳站雨滴谱仪降水量偏小外,其他各站雨滴谱仪降水量均较翻斗雨量计降水量偏大;当Rh≥16.0mm时,雨滴谱仪降水量偏差明显变大,平均偏差绝对值达到3.570mm;（3）雨滴谱仪累计降水量和翻斗雨量计累计降水量变化趋势基本一致,除汨罗和南岳站外,雨滴谱仪累计降水量常表现为偏多。通过分析可见,湖南省雨滴谱仪雨量观测有较好可靠性,可为强降水监测预警、人工影响天气及降水数据订正等提供数据支撑。     

The WMO Field Intercomparison of Rain Intensity Gauges

The first Field Intercomparison of Rainfall Intensity (RI) gauges was organised by WMO (the World Meteorological Organisation) from October 2007 to April 2009 in Vigna di Valle, Rome (Italy). The campaign is held at the Centre of Meteorological Experimentations (ReSMA) of the Italian Meteorological Service. A group of 30 previously selected rain gauges based on different measuring principles are involved in the Intercomparison. Installation of the instruments in the field was preceded by the laboratory calibration of all submitted catching-type rain gauges at the University of Genoa. Additional meteorological sensors (ancillary information) and the observations and measurements performed by the Global Climate Observing System/Global Atmosphere Watch (GCOS/GAW) meteorological station of Vigna di Valle were analyzed as metadata. All catching-type gauges were tested after installation using a portable calibration device specifically developed at the University of Genoa, simulating an ordinary calibration inspection in the field.This paper is dedicated to the summary of preliminary results of the Intercomparison measurements. It offers a view on the main achievements expected from the Intercomparison in evaluating the performance of the instruments in field conditions. Comparison of several rain gauges demonstrated the possibility to evaluate the performance of RI gauges at one-minute resolution in time, as recommended by the WMO Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observations (WMO-CIMO). Results indicate that synchronised tipping-bucket rain gauges (TBR), using internal correction algorithms, and weighing gauges (WG) with improved dynamic stability and short step response are the most accurate gauges for one-minute RI measurements, since providing the lowest measurement uncertainty with respect to the assumed working reference.     

Relationships between air mass properties and mesoscale rainfall in New Zealand's Southern Alps

This paper identifies relationships between air mass properties and mesoscale rainfall when moist air blows over New Zealand's Southern Alps from the Tasman Sea. Around 50% of the variance in six-hourly rain volumes summed across three separate cross-mountain raingauge transects and in six-hourly rain volume spilling across the alpine divide are statistically explained by the following properties of the approaching air mass: relative humidity, wind velocity normal to the mountains, air mass stability and synoptically induced upward motion. These factors also explain about 25% (r≈0.5) of the variance in the downwind distance reached by the spillover rainfall. For the highest 10% of six-hourly rainfalls, spillover distance and magnitude are negatively correlated with the 700 or 500 hPa temperature. Multiple linear regression equations suitable for predicting rainfall intensity and spillover are developed. A progression is described in the magnitude and depth of vertical motion and resulting condensation rates over the mountains as the properties of the incoming air mass evolve through a storm. These changes, together with greater downwind advection of ice particles compared to raindrops, explain the observed statistical relationships between the air mass properties and mountain rainfall.     

中国南方地基雨量计观测与星载测雨雷达探测降水的比较分析

利用热带测雨卫星(TRMM)上搭载的测雨雷达(PR)探测结果和中国40°N以南地区约430个台站雨量计观测结果,分析研究了1998-2005年中国南方地区这两种降水资料气候分布的异同.研究结果表明两种降水资料在2.5°空间水平分辨率上,所描述的中国南方降水率气候分布在多年年平均和季平均上具有较好的一致性,但在降水率极值和极值区范围大小等细节上两者还存在一定的差异,主要是地面雨量计结果相对PR结果偏高,其中中同南方50%以上地区两者相差在1 mm/d以内、30%的地区两者相差在1-2 mm/d,夏季差异可超过2 mm/d.对两种降水资料差异的原因分析表明,地面雨量计空间分布密度是影响两者差异的决定性因素,当格子内雨量计超过6个时,两者的相关系数大于0.7;夏季两种降水资料的相关性都比其他季节差,不论格子内的雨量计数量多与少;对流降水多发地区,两种降水资料之间的差异大于层云降水多发地.利用PR探测结果对夏季青藏高原多年月平均降水率分布及高原东、西部的降水特点的分析表明,6月高原东部出现2 mm/d左右的降水区,而在7和8月1 mm/d的降水区域基本覆盖了除高原西部以外的整个高原,其中高原中部地区出现降水率近3mm/d的大值区.月降水距平的时间演变表明,高原降水偏少月份要多于偏多月份.     

Some aspects of the correlation between lightning and rain activities in thunderstorms

The lightning activity of convective systems is a sometimes fruitful indicator of their precipitation production. The present study compares rain volume with different types of lightning activity in several convective systems. The study uses data obtained in the Paris area where two lightning detection systems coexist. The Météorage network provides the location and the polarity of cloud-to-ground flashes, while the SAFIR system detects the total flash activity: cloud-to-ground, intra-cloud flashes and VHF individual sources within a given time window. The overall spatial correlation between rain and lightning appears to be very consistent for all lightning types. A pixel-to-pixel study shows that positive CG flashes are associated with higher rainwater volume than negative flashes. Introducing a weight coefficient for positive CG flashes considerably improves the correlation between rain amount and lightning production. Taking into account the specific contribution of each type of lightning flash, the amount of rain can be estimated from the total electrical activity of each system. Comparison with the amount derived from radar measurement shows reasonable agreement. Finally, the parallel time evolutions of rain and lightning rates display quite similar characteristics.     

珠江口以西登陆热带气旋引发粤东暴雨的成因和预报着眼点分析

利用台风年鉴资料、雨量站观测资料及ERA-interim 1 °×1 °分析资料等,对1980—2015年在广东珠江口以西（徐闻-珠海）登陆且继续偏西（北）行但引发距离登陆点较远的粤东地区出现暴雨（“西登东雨”）的一类严重不对称热带气旋暴雨特征进行了分析。结果表明:在珠江口以西登陆的热带气旋中有近一半会给粤东地区带来暴雨;其登陆点位置远近与粤东暴雨发生与否没有直接联系,即登陆点越靠近（珠江口）并不一定使粤东更易出现暴雨;其登陆强度越强也不一定使粤东出现暴雨可能性越大,但使粤东出现特别弱降水（< 10 mm）的热带气旋多集中在（强）热带风暴级别。进一步分析引发粤东暴雨的天气形势及要素特征表明,热带气旋东侧的低空东南急流、偏东急流和偏南急流以及边界层的辐合线（台风槽）是引发粤东出现暴雨的重要原因,西太平洋副热带高压（简称副高）西南侧和“方头”副高西侧是粤东暴雨的有利形势;相似的低层风场和中层形势场背景下,700~500 hPa的湿度条件会明显影响到粤东出现暴雨的可能性的大小。      

精细化评估GPM/IMERG产品对台风“妮坦”降水的观测精度

采用地面加密雨量计观测资料，以1 h、3 h、6 h、12 h和24 h等多个时间尺度分别评估了全球降水观测GPM （Global Precipitation Measurement）计划降水产品IMERG （Integrated Multi-satellite Retrievals for GPM）对台风"妮妲"降水中小雨、中雨、大雨和暴雨等不同量级降水的估计能力，主要结论如下：（1）降水累积时长会影响IMERG降水产品的估计精度。随着降水累计时长的增加，IMERG与地面雨量计观测结果的一致性加大，相对偏差和偏差的随机性均减小；（2）降水累计时长1 h时，IMERG对不同量级降水的观测精度均存在较大偏差；（3） IMERG降水产品会高估小雨时地面雨量计的降水量，且低估小雨事件发生的概率，对于小雨等级降水的观测能力还有待提高；（4） IMERG能较好地观测到暴雨降水的空间分布区域，但对暴雨的估计量级会明显偏低。     

High resolution performance of catching type rain gauges from the laboratory phase of the WMO Field Intercomparison of Rain Intensity Gauges

The WMO Field Intercomparison of Rainfall Intensity (RI) Gauges started on October, 1st 2007 at Vigna di Valle (Italy) and was concluded in May 2009. Those catching type instruments, out of the selected rain gauges based on various measuring principles, and the four rain gauges selected as reference instruments to be installed in a pit, were preliminarily calibrated in the laboratory before their final installation at the Field Intercomparison site. The recognized WMO laboratory at the University of Genoa was involved in this task, using the same standard tests adopted for the previously held WMO Laboratory Intercomparison of RI gauges. Further tests were performed to investigate the one-minute performance of the involved instruments.The present paper deals with basically Tipping-Bucket Rain gauges (TBRs) and Weighing Gauges (WGs), using results from tests performed under constant flow rates in laboratory conditions. The objective of this initial phase of the Intercomparison was to single out the counting errors associated with each instrument, so as to help the understanding of the measured differences between instruments in the field during the second phase. Results and comments on the preliminary laboratory calibration exercise are reported in this paper together with their implications for the analysis of the outcome of the Intercomparison in the Field.     

Experimental calibration of a cost-effective X-band weather radar for climate ecological studies in southern Ecuador

In this paper setup, operational problems and a straightforward calibration approach for a cost-effective X-Band radar are presented. The LAWR (Local Area Weather Radar) system is based on conventional ship radar technology which is adapted to register rainfall within a range of about 60 km with a spatial resolution of 500 m per pixel. The instrument offers neither Doppler processing nor vertical scan capabilities but uses 20° wide (vertical) beam. The calibration suffers from an unfavorably distributed and very sparse rain gauge network, heavy clutter contamination of the signal and obstructions by surrounding terrain. A specific scaling approach is developed, that includes satellite data on cloud frequency and distribution, to overcome these limitations. Observed clutter is removed and missing values are replaced by bilinear interpolation of the undisturbed signals. A temporal and spatial bias of the radar signal is corrected using an omni-directional spatial distribution hypothesis. This is possible because of the location of the radar site in the transition zone between high rainfall on the eastern Andean slopes and low rainfall on the leeward side. A further limitation of the system is that the LAWR does not provide information on the measured reflectivity Z but dimensionless counts (8 bit resolution). Calibration is performed assuming a linear relation between radar output and rainfall as recommended by the systems manufacturer. The intercomparison of rain gauge and scatterometer data with calibrated radar rainfall reveals a good performance of the developed calibration approach.     

Statistical evaluation of a radar rainfall system for sewer system management

Urban areas are faced with mounting demands for managing waste and stormwater for a cleaner environment. Rainfall information is a critical component in efficient management of urban drainage systems. A major water quality impact affecting receiving waterbodies is the discharge of untreated waste and stormwater during precipitation, termed wet weather flow. Elimination or reduction of wet weather flow in metropolitan sewer districts is a major goal of environmental protection agencies and often requires considerable capital improvements. Design of these improvements requires accurate rainfall data in conjunction with monitored wastewater flow data. Characterizing the hydrologic/hydraulic performance of the sewer using distant rain gauges can cause oversizing and wasted expenditures. Advanced technology has improved our ability to measure accurately rainfall over large areas. Weather radar, when combined with rain gauge measurements, provides detailed information concerning rainfall intensities over specific watersheds. Knowing how much rain fell over contributing areas during specific periods aids in characterizing inflow and infiltration to sanitary and combined sewers, calibration of sewer system models, and in operation of predictive real-time control measures. Described herein is the design of a system for managing rainfall information for sewer system management, along with statistical analysis of 60 events from a large metropolitan sewer district. Analysis of the lower quartile rainfall events indicates that the expected average difference is 25.61%. Upper quartile rainfall events have an expected average difference of 17.25%. Rain gauge and radar accumulations are compared and evaluated in relation to specific needs of an urban application. Overall, the events analyzed agree to within ± 8% based on the median average difference between gauge and radar.     

自动与人工观测降雨量的差异及相关性

利用全国627个基准、基本站2005年自动与人工雨量业务观测资料, 分析了业务上自动与人工观测的降雨量的差异以及引起差异的原因, 并分析了自动观测与人工观测的降雨量的相关性。结果表明:自动观测比人工观测的日降雨量平均偏高0.12 mm, 标准差为0.70 mm, 相对偏高1.42%。627个站中, 80%的站自动与人工观测的年降雨量差值在5%以内; 近4%的站年降雨量差值在10%以上。年降雨量相对差值较大的站, 其年降雨量均较小。空间采样差、20:00 (北京时) 定时观测中人工与自动观测时间的不一致以及其他突发事件均会导致自动与人工测量的日降雨量的差异, 甚至显著差异。由于观测仪器不同引起的降雨测量系统误差差别, 导致自动与人工观测降雨量的系统偏差。自动观测与人工观测的日降雨量呈线性相关, 相关系数为0.9988。     

利用热带降雨测量卫星的微波成像仪观测资料反演陆地降水

利用热带降雨测量卫星的微波成像仪资料，结合淮河流域试验加密观测期的阜阳地面天 气雷达雨量资料，建立了以散射指数和极化订正温度为主要参数的降水反演算法。对文 中所做反演试验与日本ＮＡＳＤＡ用微波成像仪和星载测雨雷达反演的雨强进行了比较。结果表明 ，文中所用的方法在反演陆地下垫面的降雨强度的分布和降雨区域的确定是比较成功的。     

加密自动气象站雨量计资料的质量控制 及其相关关系的研究

在长春—四平地区100 km×100 km的范围内,分布有平均间隔10 km左右的147个自动气象站。结合该区域雷达回波强度资料,对2007～2011年4～10月的气象站雨量计小时降水数据进行质量控制。多步骤质量控制结果显示,有141个自动站雨量计的数据通过了检查,删除了6个错误站点的数据,对有疑问时段的数据作了标记。 利用质量控制后的5年夏季半年自动站雨量计小时降水数据,进行相关关系统计分析表明：距离在10 km以内的雨量计测量,平均相关系数均能达到0.6以上;雨量计距离小于5 km,平均相关系数在0.7以上;而站点距离超过20 km,相关系数普遍降到0.4以下;随着统计时间的增长（从分钟到月降水量）,每个雨量计的测量值具有更高的空间代表性。     

Accuracy validation of TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis daily precipitation products in the Lancang River Basin of China

Using statistical methods and contingency table method, this paper evaluates the accuracy of 12 years (1998–2009) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) daily-accumulated precipitation products within a year, the dry season, and rain season for each of the five subbasins and for each grid point (0.25?×?0.25°) in the Lancang River basin by comparing the results with data from the 35 rain gauges. The results indicate that TMPA daily precipitation estimates tend to show an underestimation comparing to the rain gauge daily precipitations under any scenarios, especially for the middle stream in the dry season. The accuracy of TMPA-averaged precipitation deteriorates with the increase of elevation at both basin and grid scale, with upstream and downstream having the worst and best accuracy, respectively. A fair capability was shown when using daily TMPA accumulations to detect rain events at drizzle rain and this capability improves with the increase of elevation. However, the capability deteriorates when it is used to detect moderate rain and heavy rain events. The accuracy of TMPA precipitation estimate products is better in the rain season than in the dry season at all scenarios. Time difference and elevation are the main factors that have impact on the accuracy of TMPA daily-accumulated precipitation products.     

多光谱卫星图像降水强度场的分析

文中将单位特征空间归类方法应用于多光谱GMS卫星图像的降水强度场分析 ,该方法可交互式地进行多光谱卫星信息和地面实测降水的协同分析 ,准确划分各强度样本集群的光谱特征空间分布 ,为可靠确定各波段卫星测值与小时降水量之间的统计关系提供了一条可行的途径。为尽量减少分界点附近数据可能造成的不确定性和误差 ,文中首先按模糊集合论的隶属度原则 ,建立了模糊划分公式。按所在降水强度等级 ,通过对多维光谱空间的各单位特征空间内计算和比较晴空、多云 (无雨 )、小雨、中雨、大雨和暴雨 6种情况发生的概率 ,经归一化处理后 ,分别建立相应的降水强度类属矩阵 ,为多光谱卫星图像降水强度场的分析确定了判识依据。就IR1 VIS降水强度类属矩阵而言 ,经 5 0 0余个实测有雨样本的检验 ,其对暴雨、大雨、中雨和小雨等各强度等级有雨样本的实测命中率均在 70 %左右。近 14 0 0个有云样本降水强度等级判识的总准确率为 73.88%。把样本仅分成无雨、中小雨和大、暴雨 3个等级进行分析 ,实测命中率和分析成功率都显著提高 ,总准确率达到 84 .4 9%。IR1 WV ,TIR1-IR2 降水强度类属矩阵 ,各项指标虽然均略低于IR1 VIS降水强度类属矩阵 ,但对无雨、中小雨和大到暴雨的 3个级判识 ,总准确率也能够达到 75 %。