Experimental and numerical investigations of a catastrophic long-runout landslide in Zhenxiong,Yunnan, southwestern China

On 11 January 2013, a catastrophic landslide of ～0.2 million m³ due to a prolonged low-intensity rainfall occurred in Zhenxiong, Yunnan, southwestern China. This landslide destroyed the village of Zhaojiagou and killed 46 people in the distal part of its path. The displaced landslide material traveled a horizontal distance of ～800 m with a vertical drop of ～280 m and stopped at 1520 m a.s.l. To examine the possible mechanism and behavior of the landslide from initiation to runout, the shear behavior of soil samples collected from the sliding surface and runout path was examined by means of ring shear tests. The test results show that the shear strength of sample from the sliding surface is less affected by shear rate while the shear rate has a negative effect on the shear strength of runout path material. It is suggested that the source and runout path materials follow the frictional and Voellmy rheology, respectively. Post-failure behavior of the landslide was modeled by using a DAN-W model, and the numerical results show that the selected rheological relationships and parameters based on the results of ring shear tests may provide good performance in modeling the Zhenxiong landslide.     

Failure Mechanism of a Shallow Landslide at Tun-Sardon Road Cut Section of Penang Island,Malaysia

The occurrences of shallow landslides in residual soils of Penang hilly areas are common in rainy days. The failure mechanisms of a shallow landslide occurred at km 3.9 road in Tun-Sardon area of Penang Island have been simulated using two different methods of slope stability analysis. The results indicate that the failure was initiated locally inside the slope and then propagated further to induce total failure. The failure propagation was started from initial local failure zone and was driven by mobilized shear strength along the shear plane. The slope was marginally stable with an overall factor of safety of 1.32 before it failed to a rainfall event on September 6, 2008. It is found from back calculation that the rain infiltration raised the temporary water level and reduced the shearing strength of soil to a minimum level with increased pore water pressure to trigger the failure. This paper suggests further research on shallow landslide of Penang Island considering the direct rainfall infiltration effect in terms of groundwater pressure-head distribution inside the slope.     

Mechanism of a long-runout landslide triggered by the August 1998 heavy rainfall in Fukushima Prefecture,Japan

Heavy rainfall from 26 to 31 August 1998 triggered many landslides in Nishigo Village of southern Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. The Hiegaesi landslide, a long-runout landslide with travel angle of 11°, which occurred in loamy volcanic-ash/pumice layer and was deposited in a nearby rice paddy, was investigated. In an observation pit dug in the middle part of the landslide deposit, the sliding zone just above the deflected rice plants was observed, and it was confirmed that grain crushing occurred in the sliding zone. The triggering and sliding mechanisms of this landslide then were investigated by ring-shear tests in laboratory. For the triggering mechanism, one saturated naturally drained test (test A: torque-controlled test) and one saturated undrained test (test B: speed-controlled test) were conducted on the samples taken from the source area of the landslide. Even in the naturally drained test opening the upper drain valve of the shear box, a temporary liquefaction occurred. In the undrained test, excess pore-pressure was generated along with shearing, and “sliding-surface liquefaction” phenomenon was observed. The effective stress and shear resistance finally decreased to near zero. These results can explain the observed phenomenon of small friction resistance like a flow of liquid when the sliding mass slid out of the source area. For the sliding mechanism of the landslide in the rice paddy, saturated undrained test (test C: speed-controlled test) was performed on soil sample above the deflected rice plants. The apparent friction angle obtained in this test was 8°. In addition, the residual friction angle measured after test B and test C was the same value of 41°. Combining with the observation on the shear zone in the ring-shear box after test C, it is concluded that, during the sliding in rice paddy, the undrained shear strength of the soil layer itself mainly influenced the high mobility of the landslide, probably because the friction between rice plants and soils is greater than the undrained shear strength inside the soil mass.     

Analysis of a progressive slope failure in the Xiangjiaba reservoir area,Southwest China

The rehabilitation construction in the reservoir area of Xiangjiaba hydropower station in Southwest China has caused many landslides. A shallow progressive failure that occurred on the resettlement site of Xin’an Town of Pingshan County in Sichuan Province was selected as a case study. This landslide occurred in a long and gently inclined area by slope excavation under rainfall conditions. It is about 3.0 m deep with a total length of 35 m and is composed of some subfailures. Undisturbed samples were retrieved, on which the basic properties, shear strength, expansive potential, mineral compositions, and microstructures were tested and analyzed. The results show (1) the landsliding materials belong to medium expansive soil, consisting of the clay minerals of illite–smectite (I/S) and chlorite–smectite (C/S); (2) shear strength of the soil is sensitive to water, which greatly decreases once saturated; and (3) many fractures and relatively large pores are developed in the soils. Back analysis of the landslide shows that the shear strength at failure is less than the residual shear strength obtained from lab tests, indicating that some processes contributing to the slope failure could not be reflected by the shear box test. Based on the above analysis, the progressive process of the slope failure was interpreted, and it is inferred that the rainfall entered into the slope mainly through fractures and relatively large pores in the soil. It caused not only the great decrease in soil strength but also the swelling trend. The latter one would lead to growth, interaction, and coalescence of the fractures. Soon after, these fractures formed the shear planes (zones), which further decreased the resistance of the landslide. Under these favorable conditions, the slope excavation directly triggered the failure.     

The July 1, 2017 Wangjiawan landslide in Ningxiang County,China

Many landslides were triggered by heavy rainfall from 29 June to 1 July 2017 in Ningxiang County, Hunan Province, China. A field investigation into one of the landslides, known as the Wangjiawan landslide, was undertaken on July 3, 2017, to understand the landslide mechanisms and the factors that triggered the event. The landslide is a translational and rotational slide that degraded downslope to an earth flow. It occurred on a steeply dipping mud-rich slate intercalation. Field investigation shows that the landslide had a movement rate of more than 25 m/s and had been triggered by up to 338 mm of continuous rainfall over 2 days. The landslide was fast-moving because it occurred on a steep slope and showed a rapid reduction in shear strength. The landslide resulted in nine fatalities and 19 injuries, most during initial rescue efforts. To mitigate a possible secondary landslide disaster, later emergency measures including evacuation of the survivors, setting up warning signs, and covering landslide cracks with plastic sheeting were adopted.     

侵蚀作用诱发黄土滑坡的机制研究

侵蚀作用诱发的黄土滑坡是黄土高原区域内一种主要的滑坡类型,对其破坏机制开展深入研究具有重要实际意义。以陕西省耀州区的庵里滑坡为例,对该类黄土滑坡的发生机制进行分析和探讨,建立了滑坡发生前侵蚀作用的不同阶段边坡的有限元模型,计算了相应的应力场和位移场,在此基础上求得各模型沿最终滑面上的正应力、剪应力和抗剪强度分布,采用极限平衡法计算边坡整体稳定系数。结果表明,随着侵蚀作用的不断加深,沿滑动面上的剪应力增大,抗剪强度减小,整体稳定性降低至最终破坏。试验结果表明,小的应变在饱和黄土中会产生显著的超孔隙水压力,因此,基岩面上饱和滑带中的超孔隙水压力加剧了该类滑坡的发生。比较滑面上的剪应力和抗剪强度发现,自前滑坡破坏从坡脚开始,向后逐步扩展,表明该类滑坡具有牵引式破坏特点。     

Influence of saturation on rainfall generated landslides in shale along Murree-Kohala road,Pakistan

On August 10, 2010 a series of landslides of more than 90,000 m³ occurred along the Muree-Kohala road in the northern area of Pakistan. A study was undertaken to evaluate the likely impacts of percent saturation and bulk density on mobilized shear strength along the basal rupture surface of the landslide. A series of unconfined compression test and unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests were performed on remolded samples of different densities with varied percentages of saturation. The results of these tests suggest that soil cohesion and friction decreases with increasing saturation. The tests also showed that the shear strength parameters tend to increase with increasing dry density; however, all the samples exhibited a noticeable loss of shear strength with increasing degree of saturation, independent of soil density.Limit equilibrium slope stability analyses were performed along the most probable failure planes, based on shear strength parameters corresponding to degrees of saturation, which varied between 30% to about 100%. This resulted in drop of factor of safety from FS = 1.64 down to 0.51 as the degree of saturation approaches unity.These results suggest that the causative factor in triggering the landslide along Murree-Kohala was the partial saturation of the zone that developed the basal rupture plane. As rain infiltrated the slope, the bulk unit weight of the soil increased, while the shear strength along the developing plane of rupture decreased sufficiently to concentrate shear strain when the material became more than 60% saturation (FS < 1.0).     

西安金盆水库放水塔附近滑坡特征及成因分析

放水塔附近滑坡是金盆水库右岸原1号滑坡体下游边界段的残留体,受短期强降水因素的诱发导致坡体变形、失稳滑动。滑坡体具顺层牵引滑动特征,且平面上,不同区段变形破坏程度不同,其表现形式与坡体平面旋转有一定的相似性。坡体滑动主要受4组结构面的控制,其中的软弱片理结构面（产状1501703555）与产状为2302903555的另一组结构面构成滑坡的滑动控制面。基岩内发育的大量的软弱片理结构面,大气强降水,滑坡上部相对平缓的地貌及人类工程对地表植被环境的破坏,滑坡体下部喷护层的存在等因素的综合影响,导致了坡体的失稳滑动。     

Residual-state creep of clastic soil in a reactivated slow-moving landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir Region,China

We study the creep properties of clastic soil in residual state. The intact samples are taken from a reactivated slow-moving landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir Region, China. Firstly, the patterns of the landslide movement are analysed based on recent monitoring data, which indicate that the soil within the shear zone is undergoing two deformation processes: a creep phase, characterised by different creep rates, and a dormant phase. We then study the creep behaviour of the soil samples through a series of ring shear creep tests under various shear stress conditions. The creep response depends strongly on the ratio of the shear stress to the residual strength, and the normal effective stress, whereas the creep rate decreases due to strength regain. The long-term strength of the clastic soil is close to the residual strength. Therefore, the residual strength obtained from conventional shear test, which is less time consuming than creep test, can be used in long-term stability analyses of creeping landslides.     

岩土体物理力学参数对岩质滑坡稳定性的影响

采用有限元-极限平衡法研究了含软弱滑动带的岩质滑坡滑动体、滑动带和滑床的密度、弹性模量和泊松比及滑动带的抗剪强度对滑坡稳定性的影响。结果表明:滑床密度、滑体及滑动带的弹性模量、滑动带及滑床的泊松比和滑动的抗剪强度指标与滑坡稳定性系数呈正相关关系,而滑体及滑动带土体密度、滑床的弹性模量和滑体的泊松比与滑坡稳定性系数呈负相关关系;软弱滑动带的抗剪强度对滑坡稳定性的影响最显著,其次为软弱滑动带的泊松比和滑床的弹性模量,其他参数的影响相对较小。      

金乐滑坡滑带土抗剪强度参数分析与确定

滑坡滑带土抗剪强度参数是滑坡稳定性分析和治理工程设计的最基本、最重要参数,它的大小及其变化直接影响到滑坡稳定性的计算,并由此得到不同的结果和涉及到治理措施的有效性。通过室内试验、滑带土现场原位大剪试验、反分析值及相似滑坡类比法综合确定三峡库区金乐滑坡滑带土的抗剪强度参数,指出该滑坡滑带土抗剪强度参数的确定和分析应采用多种方法,才可获得合理可行的结果。      

2012年6·29贵州岑巩龙家坡滑坡灾害的基本特征与成因机理:一个由侧向剪切扰动诱发大型滑坡的典型案例

侧向剪切扰动诱发滑坡是一种新型滑坡类型,深入研究其成因机理,有助于开展滑坡预警工作。2012年6月29日6时20分左右,贵州省岑巩县思旸镇龙家坡山体发生大规模滑坡,300～400万 m³岩土体失稳后堵塞坡下的马坡河,形成20余 m高的堰塞坝及库容达7万余 m³的堰塞湖。笔者在对灾害现场进行详细地质调查的基础上,结合现场调绘、航拍、颗分试验等手段,对龙家坡滑坡的基本特征进行了分析研究,对滑坡发生及成灾原因进行了初步分析。结果表明:滑坡区风化破碎的厚层堆积体、有利的岩层倾向以及前缘临空是滑坡发生的基本条件;滑坡区南侧地下水径排区被堆填大量粉黏土弃渣,不仅为该区斜坡人为增加了巨大推力,还使该区斜坡地下水局部富集。在强降雨条件下,南侧堆积区首先发生滑动,其对主滑体的侧向剪切扰动作用带动主滑区大规模失稳破坏。由此,对这类侧向剪切扰动诱发的滑坡,在进行地质灾害调查和预警时,除了应调查其岩土体特征外,还必须查明其边界条件。     

New,simplified and improved interpretation of the Vaiont landslide mechanics

Both the occurrence and behaviour of the Vaiont landslide have not been satisfactorily explained previously because of difficulties arising from the assumption that the failure surface was ‘chair’ shaped. It is now known that there was no ‘chair’, which means that the 1963 landslide could not have been a reactivated ancient landslide because the residual strength of the clay interbeds would have been insufficient for stability prior to 1963. Furthermore, the moderately translational geometry reduces the influence of reservoir-induced groundwater and hence of submergence. Standard stability analyses now show that prior to 1960, the average shear strength must have significantly exceeded the peak shear strength of the clay interbeds known to have formed the majority of the failure surface. Three-dimensional stability analyses confirm these results and show that at the time of the first significant movements in 1960, the rising reservoir level had a negligible effect on the Factor of Safety. According to these results, the Vaiont landslide was most likely initiated by pore water pressures associated with transient rainfall-induced ‘perched’ groundwater above the clay layers, in combination with a smaller than hitherto assumed effect of reservoir impounding, then developed by brittle crack propagation within the clay beds, thus displaying progressive failure. Further, very heavy rainfall accelerated the process, possibly due to reservoir-induced groundwater impeding drainage of the rainwater, until the limestone beds at the northeast margin failed. With the shear strength suddenly reduced to residual throughout, the entire mass was released and was able to accelerate as observed.     

典型红层滑坡滑带土自愈合效应试验研究

在滑坡稳定性分析和设计计算中往往选用滑带土的残余强度值,但许多研究发现滑带土在稳定期会有自愈合现象发生,表现为抗剪强度的提高。对于以蠕滑为主的红层滑坡,自愈合恢复值应该在滑坡稳定性评价中予以考虑。通过对典型红层滑坡滑带土样进行“剪切―保持―剪切”试验,研究处于残余状态下的剪切面在不同法向应力、不同保持时间下的愈合情况,并进行相应的分析与讨论。试验结果表明：（1）残余状态下的土样在保持一定时间后再次剪切出现明显峰值,证明了剪切面自愈合效应存在,但是继续剪切时恢复的强度随位移快速消失;（2）随着保持时间的增长,剪切面的强度恢复值越来越大;（3）剪切面的自愈合相比法向应力更依赖于保持时间。将得到的摩擦系数值运用断层强度恢复经验公式拟合,提出不同法向应力下常数A的取值,可在滑坡安全系数计算中参考。     

Characteristics and mechanism of a landslide at Anqian iron mine,China

Owing to the heavy rainfall, a landslide occurred at the Anqian Iron mine, at 18:00(UTC + 8) on November 24, 2019, in China. The landslide was about 3.0?×?10⁴ m³ and caused damage to the road of transporting waste materials. Failure characteristics and the mechanism of this landslide were analyzed in this study. The landslide area was divided into three parts: the rear tension cracking area, the middle sliding deformation area, and the front colluvium area. A contact-free measuring technique using the new ShapeMetrix3D system was applied and 204 joints were analyzed based on equal-angle stereographic projection. Thus, a conceptual model of the mechanism of the landslide was constructed and the formation process of the landslide was divided into three stages: the first shearing and dislocation stage; the second sliding, front bulging, and rear tractive cracking stage; and the third local rock mass collapse and colluvium depositing stage. Numerical modeling was performed to discover the landslide mechanism by progressively reducing the shear strength of rock mass. The results showed that the original slope was stable, whereas heavy rainfall triggered the landslide, and the predicted failure surface matched closely the field investigations. The factor of safety obtained by real three-dimensional analyses was slightly higher than that obtained by plane problem analyses, and the difference was attributed to the three-dimensional effect of the landslide. This paper also presents the results obtained from the parametric analysis in order to understand the impact of shear strength parameters on the overall stability of the slope.

     

Mechanism for the rapid motion of the Qianjiangping landslide during reactivation by the first impoundment of the Three Gorges Dam reservoir, China

The first impoundment of the Three Gorges Dam reservoir in China started from a water surface elevation of 95 m on June 1, 2003 and reached 135 m on June 15, 2003. Shortly after the water level reached 135 m, many slopes began to deform and some landslides occurred. The Qianjiangping landslide is the largest one; it occurred on the early morning of July 14, 2003 and caused great loss of lives and property. Field investigation revealed that, although failure occurred after the reservoir reached 135 m, the stability of the slope was already reduced by preexisting sheared bedding planes. To study the mechanism of the rapid motion of this reactivated landslide, two soil samples were taken from a yellow clay layer and a black silt layer in the sliding zone, respectively, and a series of ring shear tests were conducted on the samples. One series of ring shear tests simulates the creep deformation behavior, while the other series simulates different shear rates. Conclusions drawn from analysis of the ring shear tests indicate that the mechanism of the rapid motion of the reactivated landslide was caused by the rate effect of the black silt layer during the motion phase after the creep failure. The yellow clay layer did not play any important role in the rapid motion in the 2003 event.     

Effects of geological and tectonic characteristics on the earthquake-triggered Daguangbao landslide,China

The Daguangbao landslide is the largest co-seismic landslide triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake (Ms 8.0) occurred on 12 May 2008. The landslide, which is 4.6 km long and 3.7 km wide, involves a volume of approximately 1.2 × 10⁹ m³. An exposed slip surface, situated at the southern flank of its source area, was observed with a length of 1.8 km along the main sliding direction and an area of 0.3 km². To study the geological and tectonic characteristics of the source area and their contributions to the landslide formation during the earthquake, detailed geological investigations were firstly conducted. And it is reached that the landslide occurred on the northwestern limb of the Dashuizha anticline with its scarp showing several geological structures, including joint sets, local faults, and folds. These tectonic-related structures potentially influenced the failure of the landslide. Secondly, further investigations were focused on the inclined planar sliding surface using 12 exploratory trenches, nine boreholes, a tunnel, borehole sonic data, and micro-images. These data reveal that the rock mass along the sliding surface was the fragmented rock of a bedding fault. A pulverized zone was observed on the sliding surface, which was the zone of shear localization during the landslide. This suggests that the shear failure of the Daguangbao landslide developed within the bedding fault. The rapid failure of the landslide was associated with the degradation of the rock mass strength of the bedding fault both before and during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. With this study, we propose that a pre-existing large discontinuity within a slope may be the basis for initiating a large landslide during earthquake.     

Engineering properties and slope stability of lower coal measures rocks from monk wood cutting,Unstone-Dronfield by-pass,Derbyshire

This 30 m deep cutting has been the subject of a detailed geotechnical analysis, in view of mass-sliding wedge failures which had occurred in cuttings in similar geological situations in other parts of Britain.The sequence of rocks includes two coal seams, the upper being thin (0.3 m) and the lower thick (2 m), the latter with a recognisable seatearth (underclay). There is a thick sandstone at the top of the succession, with siltstone, mudstone and black mudstone also present.Both field and laboratory testing was carried out. The most probable failure mechanism within the more competent sandstone sequence to the south of the site would probably have been in the form of wedge failures on pre-existing discontinuities within the rock mass. It was necessary to evaluate the shear strength which could be mobilised along these planes and a field rock shear box was used. Drained-soil shear tests were also made on potential failure-surface materials, namely seatearth and clay shear zones. Weathered mudstone samples were tested to provide design parameters for the analysis of rotational slips. Additional laboratory testing carried out comprised bulk density, classification tests, slake durability and point-load indices. X-ray diffraction analyses were made on a range of materials such as seatearth, mudstone, shear zone and sandstone bedding-plane shear surface. This extensive test programme enabled parameters to be accurately determined for use in stability analyses. The latter show the critical effects of water conditions on the factor of safety.The performance of the cut has been monitored since early 1974 and no recordable movement has been noted.     

甘肃岷县永光村滑坡特征及其成因研究

泥流型黄土滑坡发生的条件除一般滑坡具有的条件之外,还应包括特殊的状态因素、触发因素及相应的驱动剪应力条件。通过对甘肃岷县永光村滑坡的现场勘察和实地调查,分析其成因,结果表明：永光村滑坡平面形态虽与泥流类似,但其具有滑坡形成区以及滑坡发生所需要的特殊的地形地貌、岩土体性质以及水文地质条件。永光村滑坡发育于沟道上游的黄土塬地带,临空面较大,滑坡剪出口位置高,具有较高的势能,滑坡体的主要岩土体是马兰黄土,黄土具有大孔隙结构,垂直节理发育,有利于地表水的下渗。下部为新近系泥岩,渗透系数低,为一相对隔水层。长期灌溉导致地下水位较高,黄土层存在软弱夹层,地下水位上升,导致其软化饱和,强度迅速降低,形成潜在滑动面。永光村滑坡亦具有圆弧形的滑坡后壁,滑坡后缘顶部分布有多条拉张裂缝,在前期发生降雨的外部条件下,在岷县“7·22”地震诱发下,发生了低角度、快速和远程的泥流型黄土滑坡,滑体在冲出沟口后形成了扇形堆积区。永光村滑坡是一种特殊的地震引发的泥流型黄土滑坡。目前,泥流型黄土滑坡的研究还处在探索阶段,是作为黄土滑坡分类的一种补充,建议进一步加强对此类灾害发生机理及其稳定性计算方法的深入研究。     

四川省盐源玻璃村特大型玄武岩古滑坡复活机制

受前期14 d持续累计350.6 mm降雨影响,2018年7月19日盐源玻璃村一巨型玄武岩古滑坡体发生大规模复活,复活体积为1 390×104 m3,损坏房屋186间,造成重大经济损失。基于现场调查、无人机航测、钻探揭露、物理力学试验及数值模拟分析,在查明滑坡体地质结构、失稳特征基础上,对其影响因素及复活机制进行了探讨。研究结果表明,破碎岩土体及地形地貌是滑坡复活的孕灾基础,持续降雨及其引起的地下水位升高是滑坡复活的诱发因素。复活滑坡可分为主滑区和侧滑区两种破坏模式不同的区域。降雨作用下滑坡体内渗流场明显变化,孔隙水压力增大,导致7月13日古滑坡体开始发生变形,稳定性系数逐渐降低。受微地貌约束,主滑区具有多级、多次失稳,渐进破坏的特点。侧滑区斜坡前缘临空条件受坡脚主滑坡控制,在主滑坡运动过程中,侧滑区坡体位移量、最大剪切应变增量逐渐增大,塑性区扩展,破坏过程表现出与主滑坡一定的关联性和滞后性。分析表明,受地下水长期影响,滑带土体强度逐渐削弱,降雨导致坡体渗流作用加剧,抗剪强度降低,从而诱发滑坡复活。