A new kinematic evolutionary model for the growth of a duplex — an example from the Rangit duplex, Sikkim Himalaya, India

The Lesser Himalayan duplex (LHD) is a prominent structure through much of the Lesser Himalayan fold–thrust belt. In the Darjeeling - Sikkim Himalaya a component of the LHD is exposed in the Rangit window as the Rangit duplex (RD). The RD consists of ten horses of the upper Lesser Himalayan Sequence (Gondwana, Buxa, Upper Daling). The duplex varies from hinterland-dipping in the north, through an antiformal stack in the middle to foreland-dipping in the south. The Ramgarh thrust (RT) is the roof thrust and, based on a balanced cross-section, the Main Himalayan Sole thrust is the floor thrust at a depth of ~ 10 km and with a dip of ~ 3.5° N.Retrodeformation suggests that the RD initiated as a foreland-dipping duplex with the Early Ramgarh thrust as the roof thrust and the RT as the floor thrust. The RT became the roof thrust during continued duplexing by a combination of footwall imbrication and concurrent RT reactivation. This kinematic history best explains the large translation of the overlying MCT sheets. The restoration suggests that RD shortening is ~ 125 km, and the original Gondwana basin extended ~ 142 km northward of its present northernmost exposures within the window.     

A new kinematic evolutionary model for the growth of a duplex — an example from the Rangit duplex,Sikkim Himalaya,India

The Lesser Himalayan duplex (LHD) is a prominent structure through much of the Lesser Himalayan fold–thrust belt. In the Darjeeling - Sikkim Himalaya a component of the LHD is exposed in the Rangit window as the Rangit duplex (RD). The RD consists of ten horses of the upper Lesser Himalayan Sequence (Gondwana, Buxa, Upper Daling). The duplex varies from hinterland-dipping in the north, through an antiformal stack in the middle to foreland-dipping in the south. The Ramgarh thrust (RT) is the roof thrust and, based on a balanced cross-section, the Main Himalayan Sole thrust is the floor thrust at a depth of ~ 10 km and with a dip of ~ 3.5° N.Retrodeformation suggests that the RD initiated as a foreland-dipping duplex with the Early Ramgarh thrust as the roof thrust and the RT as the floor thrust. The RT became the roof thrust during continued duplexing by a combination of footwall imbrication and concurrent RT reactivation. This kinematic history best explains the large translation of the overlying MCT sheets. The restoration suggests that RD shortening is ~ 125 km, and the original Gondwana basin extended ~ 142 km northward of its present northernmost exposures within the window.     

First-order kinematics of wedge-scale active Himalayan deformation: Insights from Darjiling–Sikkim–Tibet (DaSiT) wedge

The Indian Plate has collided with the Eurasian Plate along an arcuate boundary over the last 55–60 million years defining the Himalayan Mountain belt. The geometry of the collision boundary is wedge-shaped; the base of this wedge is defined by a decollement named the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT). In the Darjiling–Sikkim–Tibet (DaSiT) Himalayan wedge, a crustal-scale fault-bend fold (Kangmar Anticline) and the Lesser Himalayan Duplex (LHD) are dominant structures that have built taper and controlled the foreland-ward propagation of the thrust sheets. A frontal physiographic half-window has eroded through the Main Central Thrust (MCT) sheet to expose the LHD in the DaSiT wedge. Preliminary data suggest that active tectonics and seismicity in the DaSiT wedge may be concentrated in the half-window; this suggests that LHD may be an active structure. High-precision Global Positioning System measurements in the DaSiT wedge suggest that a minimum of 12 mm/yr convergence is being accommodated in the Darjiling–Sikkim Himalaya out of which ∼4 mm/yr convergence is being taken up in the LHD. Given that decollement earthquakes with minimum internal deformation in a deforming wedge occur when it attains critical taper, continued deformation within the DaSiT wedge and the lack of great decollement earthquakes indicate that the DaSiT Himalayan wedge is presently sub-critical and in the process of building taper. The sub-critical nature of the DaSiT wedge is probably the result of low topographic and decollement slopes, weaker rocks and pronounced erosion in the frontal part of the wedge.     

青藏高原典型地区的地貌量化分析——兼对高原“夷平面”的讨论

尽管过去150年以来,人们对于喜马拉雅造山带有很长的一段研究历史,但是对其几何特征、运动方式、动力学演化仍然理解不深。这种情况的出现,主要是因为人们持续关注的是喜马拉雅造山带的二维构造空间特性,并将某些研究程度较高地区的地质关系向外推广到造山带其他地区。就地理、地层及构造划分而言,概念的混淆和误解在有关喜马拉雅的文章中也大量存在。为了阐明这些问题,并为那些有兴趣探究喜马拉雅造山带地质演化过程的人们提供一个新的平台,文中系统地综述了以前的基本观察。我的综述主要是强调沿走向变化的喜马拉雅地质格架在喜马拉雅剥露、变质和前陆沉积方面所起的作用。文章的主要目的是阐明占据造山带核部的大喜马拉雅结晶岩带(GHC)的侵位历史。因为喜马拉雅大部分地区是由主中央冲断层(MCT)和藏南拆离系(STD)之间的GHC所组成,所以在地图和剖面观察上确定这些一级喜马拉雅构造之间的关系是非常关键的。中喜马拉雅出露的平面模式表明,MCT具有断坪-断坡的逆断层的几何特征。南部的逆冲断坪携带了一个GHC的板片(Slab)叠置在小喜马拉雅层序之上(LHS),并形成了一个在MCT逆冲断层带之南延续100km的巨大上盘断弯褶皱。在西喜马拉雅造山带地区,东经约77°处,MCT呈现为横向逆冲断坡(Mandi倾向逆冲断坡)。在其西边,MCT将低级变质的特提斯喜马拉雅层序(THS)叠置到低级变质的小喜马拉雅之上;而在其东边,MCT将高级GHC叠置到低级LHS之上。这种沿走向变化的地层叠置和横穿MCT的变质等级表明,逆冲断层的断距向西减小,可能是由于地壳短缩总量沿着喜马拉雅造山带向西减小所致。在所有出露的地方,STD大致都沿着THS底部的同一地层面,呈现出一个长度>100km的上盘断坪。这种关系说明:STD可能沿着一个先期存在的岩石接触面,或者沿中部地壳近水平的脆性—韧性转换带而发生。虽然喜马拉雅造山带藏南拆离系的上盘都有THS发育,但是至今没有找到THS切断STD下盘的证据。这样使得估算STD的滑动距离非常困难。STD最南端地层或与MCT(即,Zanskar)相交,或者位于MCT前端1～2km的范围内(不丹),这两种可能都暗示MCT与STD在它们向南的上倾(up-dip)方向有可能结合。虽然这种几何特征在现有的模型中几乎被忽略,但对于整个喜马拉雅造山带的变形和剥露历史具有重要的指示作用。     

Upper crustal shortening and forward modeling of the Himalayan thrust belt along the Budhi-Gandaki River, central Nepal

A balanced cross-section along the Budhi-Gandaki River in central Nepal between the Main Central thrust, including displacement on that fault, and the Main Frontal thrust reveals a minimum total shortening of 400 km. Minimum displacement on major orogen-scale structures include 116 km on the Main Central thrust, 110 km on the Ramgarh thrust, 95 km on the Trishuli thrust, and 56 km in the Lesser Himalayan duplex. The balanced cross-section was also incrementally forward modeled assuming a generally forward-breaking sequence of thrusting, where early faults and hanging-wall structures are passively carried from the hinterland toward the foreland. The approximate correspondence of the forward modeled result to observe present day geometries suggest that the section interpretation is viable and admissible. In the balanced cross-section, the Trishuli thrust is the roof thrust for the Lesser Himalayan duplex. The forward model and reconstruction emphasize that the Lesser Himalayan duplex grew by incorporating rock from the footwall and transferring it to the hanging wall along the Main Himalayan thrust. As the duplex developed, the Lesser Himalayan ramp migrated southward. The movement of Lesser Himalayan thrust sheets over the ramp pushed the Lesser Himalayan rock and the overburdens of the Greater and Tibetan Himalayan rock toward the erosional surface. This vertical structural movement caused by footwall collapse and duplexing, in combination with erosion, exhumed the Lesser Himalaya.     

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF MIOCENE LEUCOGRANITE IN THE ARUN VALLEY—EVEREST—MAKALU AREA:FIELD RELATIONS, PETROLOGY AND ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY

DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF MIOCENE LEUCOGRANITE IN THE ARUN VALLEY—EVEREST—MAKALU AREA:FIELD RELATIONS, PETROLOGY AND ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY1　AritaK .OriginoftheinvertedmetamorphismoftheLowerHimalayas,CentralNepal[J] .Tectonophysics,1983,93:4 3～6 0 . 　BarbarinB .Areviewoftherelationshipsbetweengranitoidtypes,theiroriginsandtheirgeodynamicenvironments[J] .Lithos,1999,4 6 :6 0 5～ 6 2 6 . 3　BurchfielBC ,ChenZ,HodgesKV ,etal.TheSou…     

MAIN CENTRAL THRUST ZONE IN THE KATHMANDU AREA, CENTRAL NEPAL, AND ITS TECTONIC SIGNIFICANCE

MAIN CENTRAL THRUST ZONE IN THE KATHMANDU AREA, CENTRAL NEPAL, AND ITS TECTONIC SIGNIFICANCE1　AritaK ,LallmeyerRD ,TakasuA .TectonothermalevolutionoftheLesserHimalaya ,Nepal:constraintsfrom 4 0 Ar/3 9AragesfromtheKathmandunappe[J].TheIslandArc ,1997,6 :372～ 384. 2　RaiSM ,GuillotS ,LeFortP ,etal.Pressure temperatureevolutionintheKathmanduandGosainkundregions ,CentralNepal[J].JourAsianEarthSci ,1998,16 :2 83～ 2 98. 3　SchellingD ,KArita .…     

Deformation mechanisms in the frontal Lesser Himalayan Duplex in Sikkim Himalaya,India

Understanding deformation mechanisms in Himalayan rocks is a challenging proposition due to the complex nature of the deformed rocks and their genesis. Crustal deformation in the Himalayan thrust belt typically occurs in elastico-frictional (EF) or quasi-plastic (QP) regimes at depths controlled mainly by regional strain-rate and geothermal gradient. However, material property, grain-size and their progressive changes during deformation are also important controlling factors. We present evidence of EF deformation from Gondwana rocks developed during the emplacement of one of the frontal horses (Jorthang horse) in the Lesser Himalayan Duplex (LHD) structure associated with Lesser Himalayan rocks in the footwall of the Ramgarh thrust in the Rangit window near Jorthang in the Sikkim Himalaya. The rocks in the horse exhibit systematic changes in microand meso-structures from an undeformed protolith to cataclasite suggesting that it was emplaced under elastico-frictional conditions. Meso- to micro-scale shear fractures are seen developed in Gondwana sandstone and slate while intercalated fine-grained shale-coal-carbonates are deformed by cataclastic flow suggesting that material property and grain-size have played an important role in the deformation of the Jorthang horse. In contrast, the hanging wall schists and quartzites of the Ramgarh thrust exhibit quasi-plastic deformation structures. This suggests that the Jorthang horse was emplaced under shallower crustal conditions than the antiformally folded Ramgarh thrust sheet even though the Ramgarh sheet presently overlies the Jorthang horse.     

Late Miocene movement within the Himalayan Main Central Thrust shear zone, Sikkim, north-east India

In the Sikkim region of north‐east India, the Main Central Thrust (MCT) juxtaposes high‐grade gneisses of the Greater Himalayan Crystallines over lower‐grade slates, phyllites and schists of the Lesser Himalaya Formation. Inverted metamorphism characterizes rocks that immediately underlie the thrust, and the large‐scale South Tibet Detachment System (STDS) bounds the northern side of the Greater Himalayan Crystallines. In situ Th–Pb monazite ages indicate that the MCT shear zone in the Sikkim region was active at c. 22, 14–15 and 12–10 Ma, whereas zircon and monazite ages from a slightly deformed horizon of a High Himalayan leucogranite within the STDS suggest normal slip activity at c. 17 and 14–15 Ma. Although average monazite ages decrease towards structurally lower levels of the MCT shear zone, individual results do not follow a progressive younging pattern. Lesser Himalaya sample KBP1062A records monazite crystallization from 11.5 ± 0.2 to 12.2 ± 0.1 Ma and peak conditions of 610 ± 25 °C and 7.5 ± 0.5 kbar, whereas, in the MCT shear zone rock CHG14103, monazite crystallized from 13.8 ± 0.5 to 11.9 ± 0.3 Ma at lower grade conditions of 525 ± 25 °C and 6 ± 1 kbar. The P–T–t results indicate that the shear zone experienced a complicated slip history, and have implications for the understanding of mid‐crustal extrusion and the role of out‐of‐sequence thrusts in convergent plate tectonic settings.     

The two intracrustal boundary thrusts of the Himalaya

The series of four different, steeply inclined thrusts which sharply sever the youthful autochthonous Cenozoic sedimentary zone, including the Siwalik, from the mature old Lesser Himalayan subprovince is collectively known as the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). In the proximity of this trust in northwestern and eastern sectors, the parautochtonous Lesser Himalayan sedimentary formations are pushed up and their narrow frontal parts split into imbricate sheets with attendant repetition and inversion of lithostratigraphic units. The superficially steeper thrust plane seems to flatten out at depth. The MBT is tectonically and seismically very active at the present time.The Main Central Thrust (MCT), inclined 30° to 45° northwards, constitutes the real boundary between the Lesser and Great Himalaya. Marking an abrubt change in the style and orientation of structures and in the grade of metamorphism from lower amphibolitefacies of the Lesser Himalayan to higher metamorphic facies of the Great Himalayan, the redefined Main Central Thrust lies at a higher level as that originally recognized by A. Heim and A. Gansser. They had recognized this thrust as the contact of the mesozonal metamorphics against the underlying sedimentaries or epimetamorphics. It has now been redesignated as the Munsiari Thrust in Kumaun. It extends northwest in Himachal as the Jutogh Thrust and farther in Kashmir as the Panjal Thrust. In the eastern Himalaya the equivalents of the Munsiari Thrust are known as the Paro Thrust and the Bomdila Thrust. The upper thrust surface in Nepal is recognized as the Main Central Thrust by French and Japanese workers. The easterly extension of the MCT is known as the Khumbu Thrust in eastern Nepal, the Darjeeling Thrust in the Darjeeling-Sikkim region, the Thimpu Thrust in Bhutan and the Sela Thrust in western Arunachal. Significantly, hot springs occur in close proximity to this thrust in Kumaun, Nepal and Bhutan. There are reasons to believe that movement is taking place along the MCT, although seismically it is less active than the MBT.     

METAMORPHISM IN THE LESSER HIMALAYAN CRYSTALLINES AND MAIN CENTRAL THRUST ZONE IN THE ARUN VALLEY AND AMA DRIME RANGE (EASTERN HIMALAYA)

METAMORPHISM IN THE LESSER HIMALAYAN CRYSTALLINES AND MAIN CENTRAL THRUST ZONE IN THE ARUN VALLEY AND AMA DRIME RANGE (EASTERN HIMALAYA)1　BrunelM ,KienastJR . tudep啨ｔｒｏ structuraledeschevauchementsductileshimalayenssurlatrans versaledel’Everest Makalu (N啨ｐａｌｏｒｉｅｎｔａｌ) [J].CanadianJ .EarthSciences,1986 ,2 3:1117～ 1137. 2　LombardoB ,RolfoF .TwocontrastingeclogitetypesintheHimalayas :implicationsfortheHimalayanorogeny…     

The metamorphism in the Central Himalaya

ABSTRACT All along the Himalayan chain an axis of crystalline rocks has been preserved, made of the Higher Himalaya crystalline and the crystalline nappes of the Lesser Himalaya. The salient points of the metamorphism, as deduced from data collected in central Himalaya (central Nepal and Kumaun), are:

• 1 The Higher Himalaya crystalline, also called the Tibetan Slab, displays a polymetamorphic history with a first stage of Barrovian type overprinted by a lower pressure and/or higher temperature type metamorphism. The metamorphism is due to quick and quasi-adiabatic uplift of the Tibetan Slab by transport along an MCT ramp, accompanied by thermal refraction effects in the contact zone between the gneisses and their sedimentary cover. The resulting metamorphic pattern is an apparent (diachronic) inverse zonation, with the sillimanite zone above the kyanite zone.
• 2 Conversely, the famous inverted zonation of the Lesser Himalaya is basically a primary pattern, acquired during a one-stage prograde metamorphism. Its origin must be related to the thrusting along the MCT, with heat supplied from the overlying hot Tibetan Slab, as shown by synmetamorphic microstructures and the close geometrical relationships between the metamorphic isograds and the thrust.
• 3 Thermal equilibrium is reached between units above and below the MCT. Far behind the thrust tip there is good agreement between the maximum temperature attained in the hanging wall and the temperature of the Tibetan Slab during the second metamorphic stage; but closer to the MCT front, the thermal accordance between both sides of the thrust is due to a retrogressive metamorphic episode in the basal part of the Tibetan Slab.

     

An overview of the stratigraphy and tectonics of the Nepal Himalaya

Nepal can be divided into the following five east–west trending major tectonic zones. (i) The Terai Tectonic Zone which consists of over one km of Recent alluvium concealing the Churia Group (Siwalik equivalents) and underlying rocks of northern Peninsular India. Recently active southward-propagating thrusts and folds beneath the Terai have affected both the underlying Churia and the younger sediments. (ii) The Churia Zone, which consists of Neogene to Quaternary foreland basin deposits and forms the Himalayan mountain front. The Churia Zone represents the most tectonically active part of the Himalaya. Recent sedimentologic, geochronologic and paleomagnetic studies have yielded a much better understanding of the provenance, paleoenvironment of deposition and the ages of these sediments. The Churia Group was deposited between ∼14 Ma and ∼1 Ma. Sedimentary rocks of the Churia Group form an archive of the final drama of Himalayan uplift. Involvement of the underlying northern Peninsular Indian rocks in the active tectonics of the Churia Zone has also been recognised. Unmetamorphosed Phanerozoic rocks of Peninsular India underlying the Churia Zone that are involved in the Himalayan orogeny may represent a transitional environment between the Peninsula and the Tethyan margin of the continent. (iii) The Lesser Himalayan Zone, in which mainly Precambrian rocks are involved, consists of sedimentary rocks that were deposited on the Indian continental margin and represent the southernmost facies of the Tethyan sea. Panafrican diastrophism interrupted the sedimentation in the Lesser Himalayan Zone during terminal Precambrian time causing a widespread unconformity. That unconformity separates over 12 km of unfossiliferous sedimentary rocks in the Lesser Himalaya from overlying fossiliferous rocks which are >3 km thick and range in age from Permo-Carboniferous to Lower to Middle Eocene. The deposition of the Upper Oligocene–Lower Miocene fluvial Dumri Formation records the emergence of the Himalayan mountains from under the sea. The Dumri represents the earliest foreland basin deposit of the Himalayan orogen in Nepal. Lesser Himalayan rocks are less metamorphosed than the rocks of the overlying Bhimphedis nappes and the crystalline rocks of the Higher Himalayan Zone. A broad anticline in the north and a corresponding syncline in the south along the Mahabharat range, as well as a number of thrusts and faults are the major structures of the Lesser Himalayan Zone which is thrust over the Churia Group along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). (iv) The crystalline high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Higher Himalayan Zone form the backbone of the Himalaya and give rise to its formidable high ranges. The Main Central Thrust (MCT) marks the base of this zone. Understanding the origin, timing of movement and associated metamorphism along the MCT holds the key to many questions about the evolution of the Himalaya. For example: the question of whether there is only one or whether there are two MCTs has been a subject of prolonged discussion without any conclusion having been reached. The well-known inverted metamorphism of the Himalaya and the late orogenic magmatism are generally attributed to movement along the MCT that brought a hot slab of High Himalayan Zone rocks over the cold Lesser Himalayan sequence. Harrison and his co-workers, as described in a paper in this volume, have lately proposed a detailed model of how this process operated. The rocks of the Higher Himalayan Zone are generally considered to be Middle Cambrian to Late Proterozoic in age. (v) The Tibetan Tethys Zone is represented by Cambrian to Cretaceous-Eocene fossiliferous sedimentary rocks overlying the crystalline rocks of the Higher Himalaya along the Southern Tibetan Detachment Fault System (STDFS) which is a north dipping normal fault system. The fault has dragged down to the north a huge pile of the Tethyan sedimentary rocks forming some of the largest folds on the Earth. Those sediments are generally considered to have been deposited in a more distal part of the Tethys than were the Lesser Himalayan sediments.The present tectonic architecture of the Himalaya is dominated by three master thrusts: the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT). The age of initiation of these thrusts becomes younger from north to south, with the MCT as the oldest and the MFT as the youngest. All these thrusts are considered to come together at depth in a flat-lying decollement called the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT). The Mahabharat Thrust (MT), an intermediate thrust between the MCT and the MBT is interpreted as having brought the Bhimphedi Group out over the Lesser Himalayan rocks giving rise to Lesser Himalayan nappes containing crystalline rocks. The position of roots of these nappes is still debated. The Southern Tibetan Detachment Fault System (STDFS) has played an important role in unroofing the higher Himalayan crystalline rocks.     

Metamorphism of Greater and Lesser Himalayan rocks exposed in the Modi Khola valley, central Nepal

Thermobarometric estimates for Lesser and Greater Himalayan rocks combined with detailed structural mapping in the Modi Khola valley of central Nepal reveal that large displacement thrust-sense and normal-sense faults and ductile shear zones mostly control the spatial pattern of exposed metamorphic rocks. Individual shear zone- or fault-bounded domains contain rocks that record approximately the same peak metamorphic conditions and structurally higher thrust sheets carry higher grade rocks. This spatial pattern results from the kinematics of thrust-sense faults and shear zones, which usually place deeper, higher grade rocks on shallower, lower grade rocks. Lesser Himalayan rocks in the hanging wall of the Ramgarh thrust equilibrated at about 9 kbar and 580°C. There is a large increase in recorded pressures and temperatures across the Main Central thrust. Data presented here suggest the presence of a previously unrecognized normal fault entirely within Greater Himalayan strata, juxtaposing hanging wall rocks that equilibrated at about 11 kbar and 720°C against footwall rocks that equilibrated at about 15 kbar and 720°C. Normal faults occur at the structural top and within the Greater Himalayan series, as well as in Lesser Himalayan strata 175 and 1,900 m structurally below the base of the Greater Himalayan series. The major mineral assemblages in the samples collected from the Modi Khola valley record only one episode of metamorphism to the garnet zone or higher grades, although previously reported ca. 500 Ma concordant monazite inclusions in some Greater Himalayan garnets indicate pre-Cenozoic metamorphism.     

Superposed folding of a blind thrust and formation of klippen: results of anisotropic magnetic susceptibility studies from the Lesser Himalaya

The rocks of the Garhwal Lesser Himalaya have undergone a weak superimposed deformation, hence linear and planar structures are either absent or poorly developed. This puts a severe limitation on application of conventional methods of finite strain determination in understanding the deformation pattern. However, the geometry, orientation, and distribution of magnetic susceptibility strain ellipses clearly reveal the effects of early and superposed deformations in the area. The orientation patterns of the ellipses also help to identify reversal of displacement along an oblique fault ramp during the superposed deformation. The Hrouda double plot reveals a combination of lateral shortening and simple shear, thereby suggesting a small translation along the klippe detachment thrust. The study has important implications for understanding the structural evolution of the Lesser Himalayan klippen, because the earlier models, in the absence of the relevant data, are based on assumptions concerning thrust displacement. The present field studies and the AMS data favour an alternate model for the structural evolution of the Lesser Himalayan klippen, that lie in the core of the Mussoorie Syncline. The model explains structural features and outcrop patterns as due to a combination of fault bifurcation, back thrusts, pop-up, and subsequent superposed deformation. The klippen lie over their roots and are described as pop-up klippen.     

Was Himalayan normal faulting triggered by initiation of the Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust and development of the Lesser Himalayan duplex?

The Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust is a major orogen-scale fault that extends for more than 1,500 km along strike in the Himalayan fold-thrust belt. The fault can be traced along the Himalayan arc from Himachal Pradesh, India, in the west to eastern Bhutan. The fault is located within the Lesser Himalayan tectonostratigraphic zone, and it translated Paleoproterozoic Lesser Himalayan rocks more than 100 km toward the foreland. The Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust is always located in the proximal footwall of the Main Central thrust. Northern exposures (toward the hinterland) of the thrust sheet occur in the footwall of the Main Central thrust at the base of the high Himalaya, and southern exposures (toward the foreland) occur between the Main Boundary thrust and Greater Himalayan klippen. Although the metamorphic grade of rocks within the Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust sheet is not significantly different from that of Greater Himalayan rock in the hanging wall of the overlying Main Central thrust sheet, the tectonostratigraphic origin of the two different thrust sheets is markedly different. The Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust became active in early Miocene time and acted as the roof thrust for a duplex system within Lesser Himalayan rocks. The process of slip transfer from the Main Central thrust to the Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust in early Miocene time and subsequent development of the Lesser Himalayan duplex may have played a role in triggering normal faulting along the South Tibetan Detachment system.     

GEOLOGY OF THE NORTHERN ARUN TECTONIC WINDOW

GEOLOGY OF THE NORTHERN ARUN TECTONIC WINDOW1　BordetP .Recherchesg啨ｏｌｏｇｉｑｕｅｓｄａｎｓｌ’ＨｉｍａｌａｙａｄｕＮ啨ｐａｌ,r啨ｇｉｏｎｄｕＭａｋａｌｕ[R].EditionsduCNRS ,Paris ,196 12 75 . 2　BordetP .G啨ｏｌｏｇｉｅｄｅｌａｄａｌｌｅｄｕＴｉｂｅｔ (Himalayacentral) [J].M啨ｍｏｉｒｅｓｈｏｒｓｓ啨ｒｉｅｄｅｌａＳｏｃｉｅｔ啨ｇ啨ｏｌｏｇｉｑｕｅｄｅＦｒａｎｃｅ,1977,8:2 35～ 2 5 0 . 3　BurcfielBC ,ChenZ ,HodgesKV ,etal.TheSouthTibetanDetachmentSystem ,Hima…     

An overview of the metamorphic evolution in Central Nepal

This paper summarizes the studies of the metamorphic evolution of Central Nepal carried out by Nepali and international teams in the last 25 years. In Central Nepal, three metamorphic units are recognized. (1) The southernmost zone is the Lesser Himalaya, which is characterised by an inverted mineral zoning towards the Main Central Thrust (MCT) zone; (2) the Kathmandu nappe corresponds to an early (<22 Ma) out-of-sequence thrusting zone over the Lesser Himalaya along the Mahabharat thrust (MT) and is characterised by a Barrovian metamorphic evolution; (3) the Higher Himalayan Crystalline unit (HHC) is bounded at its base by the MCT and at its top by the South Tibetan Detachment system (STDS). It is characterised by successive tectonometamorphic episodes during the period spanning from 35–36 Ma to 2–3 Ma. Recent investigations suggest that the apparent metamorphic inversion througout the MCT zone does not reflect geothermal inversion. Instead, these investigations suggest successive cooling of the HHC along the MCT and the local preservation, above the MCT, of high-grade metamorphic rocks. The overall metamorphic history in Central Nepal from Oligocene to Pliocene, reflects the thermal reequilibration of rocks after thickening by conductive and advective heating and partial melting of the middle crust.     

Metamorphic evolution of the High Himalayan Crystallines in SE Zanskar, India

ABSTRACT The High Himalayan Crystallines (HHC) of SE Zanskar consist of biotite paragneisses, of orthogneisses that derive from early-Palaeozoic granitoids, of minor metabasics and of post-metamorphic leucogranites of Miocene age. Two main metamorphic events have been documented in the HHC. The first event occurred at P= 12.0 ± 0.5 kbar and T= 750 ± 50° C in rare metabasics intruded by early-Palaeozoic granitoids. In the biotite paragneisses, thermobarometric estimates of the first event point to comparable T at P 4–5 kbar lower. The first event is followed by a pervasive syn-tectonic crystallization characterized by lower P and T. On the basis of the cooling ages of the metamorphic minerals and on the geological evidence, the second event is referred to the Tertiary Himalayan crystallization. Further petrological and geochronological studies are necessary to prove whether a few mineral relics ascribed to the first event define a polyphase Himalayan evolution or if they record the incomplete obliteration of an older history during the Himalayan event. The HHC of SE Zanskar show a decrease in metamorphic grade from the middle structural levels upward, close to the Kade unit, and downward, close to the Lesser Himalaya (from sillimanite-K-feldspar-biotite-bearing assemblages to kyanite-staurolite-muscovite-bearing assemblages). This metamorphic zonation is probably a consequence of the polyphase history of intracontinental thrusts and of the tectonic emplacement of hot crustal slabs within shallower and colder thrust sheets at relatively late stages of the continental collision between India and Eurasia.     

Structural set up in northern part of Kumaun Himalaya

The Main Central Thrust (MCT) and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) are the two major thrusts in Kumaun, the MCT forming the boundary between highly sheared, deformed and mylonitized rocks of the Great Himalayan Central Crystallines and the Lesser Himalayan metasedimentaries. While in the Central Crystallines four-folding episodes are observed of which two are of the Precambrian age, the Lesser Himalayan rocks show only two phases of folding. MCT has its own distinctive structural history and the crystalline mass comprises an integral part of peninsular India.