3D geomechanical modeling and estimating the compaction and subsidence of Fahlian reservoir formation (X-field in SW of Iran)

A geomechanical model can reveal the mechanical behavior of rocks and be used to manage the reservoir programs in a better mode. Fluid pressure will be reduced during hydrocarbon production from a reservoir. This reduction of pressure will increase the effective stress due to overburden sediments and will cause porous media compaction and surface subsidence. In some oil fields, the compacting reservoir can support oil and gas production. However, the phenomena can also cause the loss of wells and reduced production and also cause irreparable damage to the surface structures and affect the surrounding environment. For a detailed study of the geomechanical behavior of a hydrocarbon field, a 3D numerical model to describe the reservoir geomechanical characteristics is essential. During this study, using available data and information, a coupled fluid flow-geomechanic model of Fahlian reservoir formation in X-field in SW of Iran was constructed to estimate the amount of land subsidence. According to the prepared model, in this field, the maximum amount of the vertical stress is 110 MPa and the maximum amount of the horizontal stress is 94 MPa. At last, this model is used for the prediction of reservoir compaction and subsidence of the surface. The maximum value of estimated ground subsidence in the study equals to 29 mm. It is considered that according to the obtained values of horizontal and vertical movement in the wall of different wells, those movements are not problematic for casing and well production and also the surrounding environment.     

地下储气库地应力模拟研究与地质完整性评估——以相国寺为例

为保障国家调峰保供需求,目前相国寺地下储气库(以下简称储气库)提出并正在进行扩压增量工程,为有效指导储气库运行上限压力优化,同时确保储气库长期安全运行,亟需对相国寺储气库开展地质体完整性评估。综合地质、地震、测井、动态监测资料以及各类室内岩芯实验数据,建立相国寺储气库三维静态及四维地质力学模型,分析了储气库地质体地质力学特征,分别对不同气藏孔隙压力特征下的盖层、底托层、断层稳定性进行应力应变模拟及评估。结果表明:梁山组盖层以及韩家店组底托层在储气库运行过程中产生的地层形变量小;5条控藏断层在储气库前期运行及现今注采条件下没有断层活化风险;模拟储气库注入压力高于原始气藏压力6 MPa时,储气库地质体完整性存在失稳风险。研究成果精细定量化评估了储气库在动态应力场影响下的运行安全,对优化储气库运行方案具有重要的指导意义。      

Analysis of fault leakage from Leroy underground natural gas storage facility, Wyoming, USA

Leroy natural-gas storage site is an anticlinal, fault-bounded, aquifer-storage system located in Wyoming, USA. Based on its abundant data, uncontrolled leakage history and subsequent control by the facility operators, a modeling framework was developed for studying reservoir behavior, examining pressure and gas-inventory histories, as well as gas and brine leakage, and evaluating the sensitivity of that behavior to uncertainty about reservoir properties. A three-dimensional model capturing the bounding fault, layered geologic stratigraphy, and surface topography was calibrated by history data of reservoir pressure and gas inventory. The calibrated model predicted gas arrival at the ground surface that was consistent with the timing of observed gas bubbling into a creek. A global sensitivity analysis was performed to examine the parameters influencing fault leakage, and a geomechanical stability analysis was conducted to investigate the likelihood of fault reactivation. In general, it is shown that a discrete leakage pathway is required to explain the observed gas leakage and its subsequent operational control by reducing reservoir pressures. Specifically, the results indicate that fault leakage is a plausible explanation for the observed gas leakage. The results are relevant to other natural-gas storage sites, as well as other subsurface storage applications of buoyant fluids, such as CO₂.     

盐穴储气库破坏后地表沉陷规律数值模拟研究

地下盐穴储气库在天然气调峰和保障供气安全上具有不可替代的作用。地下盐穴储气库达到设计年限后,将报废而逐步垮塌,必然引起严重的地表沉陷。因此,对盐穴储气库破坏后地表沉陷规律进行研究具有十分重要的意义。考虑到目前的数值分析软件进行地表沉陷分析的不足,开发了用于盐穴储气库破坏后地表沉陷数值模拟的有限元专用软件-2D-Sink,该软件具有处理破碎岩块的能力。应用2D-Sink对盐穴储气库破坏后引起的地表沉陷规律进行了系统的研究,共建立了6种模型进行数值模拟,分别研究了地表沉陷层理效应、地表沉陷的岩层倾斜效应、地表沉陷的断层效应和多盐穴地表沉陷规律。对多溶腔地表变形曲线与单溶腔叠加的地表变形曲线进行比较,验证了地表沉陷叠加原理的正确性。研究成果为盐穴储气库报废后地表沉陷灾害控制提供了理论基础。     

Well-based hydraulic and geochemical monitoring of the above zone of the CO2 reservoir at Ketzin, Germany

In order to detect hydraulic and geochemical impact on the groundwater directly above the CO₂ storage reservoir at the Ketzin pilot site continuous monitoring using an observation well is carried out. The target depth (446 m below ground level, bgl.) of the well is the Exter formation (Upper Triassic, Rhaetian) which is the closest permeable stratigraphic overlying formation to the CO₂ storage reservoir (630–636 m bgl. at well location). The monitoring concept comprises evaluation of hydraulic conditions, temperature, water chemistry, gas geochemistry and δ¹³C values. This is achieved by a tubing inserted inside the well with installed pressure sensors and a U-tube sampling system so that pumping tests or additional wireline logging can be carried out simultaneously with monitoring. The aquifer was examined using a pump test. The observation well is hydraulically connected to the regional aquifer system and the permeability of about 1.8 D is comparatively high. Between Sept. 2011 and Oct. 2012, a pressure increase of 7.4 kPa is observed during monitoring under environmental conditions. Drilling was carried out with drilling mud on carbonate basis. The concentration of residual drilling mud decreases during the pump test, but all samples show a residual concentration of drilling mud. The formation fluid composition is recalculated with PHREEQC and is comparable to the literature values for the Exter formation. The gas partial pressure is below saturation at standard conditions and the composition is dominated by N₂ similar to the underlying storage reservoir prior to CO₂ injection. The impact of residual drilling mud on dissolved inorganic carbon and the respective δ¹³C values decreases during the monitoring period. The pristine isotopic composition cannot be determined due to calcite precipitation. No conclusive results indicate a leakage from the underlying CO₂ storage reservoir.     

Characterization of land subsidence induced by groundwater withdrawals in the plain of Beijing city,China

The plain of Beijing city in China suffers severe land subsidence owing to groundwater overdraft. The maximum subsidence rate could reach 6 cm/year through the 2000s. An integrated subsidence-monitoring program was designed, including levelling survey, borehole extensometers and multilayer monitoring of groundwater level, with the aim to understand both hydrological and mechanical processes and to characterize the land subsidence. From multilayer compaction monitoring, the major compression layers were identified. The major strata contributing to compression deformation are the second (64.5–82.3 m) and third (102–117 m) aquitards, which contributed around 39 % of the total subsidence. Meanwhile, irrecoverable deformations were also observed in the second (82.3–102 m) and third (117–148 m) confined aquifers; they exhibit elasto-plastic mechanical behavior, which is attributed to the thin beds of silt or silty clay. Stress–strain analysis and oedometer tests were conducted to study the aquifer-system response to pumping　and to estimate the specific storage of the major hydrogeologic units. The results reveal the creep behavior and elasto-plastic, visco-elasto-plastic mechanical behavior of the aquitards at different depths. The compressibility of the aquitards in the inelastic range is about one order of magnitude larger than for the elastic range.     

盐岩储库区地面沉降预测与控制研究现状与展望

利用盐岩地层建设地下油气储库群已成为各国发展能源储备的重要方向,然而关于储库区地面沉降的研究至今仍处于探索阶段。由于地面沉降所造成的重大事故屡见不鲜,因此有必要集中力量研究盐岩库区地面沉降问题,为我国盐岩储库群的建设提供可靠的理论依据。本文主要从以下3个方面总结了近几十年来国内外学者在盐岩储库区地面沉降预测方面所做出的努力与成绩:(1)现场监测——法国、德国、美国先后建立了现场监测网络,获得了大量的长期监测数据;(2)理论计算——我国学者于20世纪90年代末将随机介质理论引入到盐矿水溶开采地面沉降预测中,从而为储库区地面沉降预测提供了新的理论基础;(3)数值模拟——欧洲学者利用FLAC2D程序对盐岩储库区的地面稳定性进行了数值模拟,而我国学者则利用在新概率积分法的基础上建立起的预测模型成功进行了沉降预测模拟。此外,为了有效地控制库区地面变形,预留矿柱式水溶开采法在国外众多盐岩地下储库群建设中得以广泛应用。本文最后提出在后续研究中将重点着眼于地表变形随时间的发展过程,并对现有理论模型进行适当的修正以及利用现场实测数据进一步完善预测所需参数的选取方法,从而使预测结果更为准确可靠。     

Numerical modelling of regional faults in land subsidence prediction above gas/oil reservoirs

The stress variation induced by gas/oil production may activate pre‐existing regional faults. This may enhance the expected land subsidence due to the generation of mechanically weak points close to the producing field. A class of elasto‐plastic interface elements (IE), specifically designed to address the mechanical behaviour of faults over a regional scale, is integrated into a finite element (FE) geomechanical model and used to investigate the role exerted by active faults in anthropogenic land subsidence. The importance of regional faults depends on a variety of factors including depth of the depleted reservoir, fault number, orientation and size, geomechanical properties of porous medium, pore pressure drawdown induced by fluid production, etc. With the aid of some representative examples, a useful indication is provided as to where and how fault activation may influence both magnitude and extent of the land subsidence bowl above producing gas/oil reservoirs, pointing to a generally limited impact on the ground surface. The simulation of a real faulted gas reservoir in a complex 3‐D setting shows that the proposed IE can be simply and efficiently incorporated into a FE geomechanical model, thus improving the quality of the stress and displacement prediction. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

二氧化碳地质封存环境监测现状及建议

CO2地质封存是应对全球气候变化的新举措,许多国家都开展了相关的工程项目或研究。环境监测作为验证场址在当前以及较长一段时间后的合理性和安全性的重要手段,是工程实施的重要工作。对国内外CO2地质封存环境监测的相关工作以及项目所采用的监测技术进行总结,并利用监测选择工具MST得出中石化胜利油田CO2-EOR项目适用的监测技术,在此基础上提出该项目背景监测的对象、技术和频率等框架,为项目监测工作的开展提供参考依据,最后简略提出环境监测工作的方法和大纲。     

Prediction of sub-surface subsidence movements due to underground coal mining

Summary The theoretical model of the relationship between sub-surface and surface subsidence movements proposed earlier by the authors of this paper is briefly described and further tested against another case history example. Using this model, the magnitudes of the maximum subsidence, tilt and horizontal strain at sub-surface horizons between the ground surface and seam level are predicted in terms of the magnitudes of the corresponding components at the surface due to the extraction of subcritical panels with a wide range of width-depth ratios and the results presented in the form of nomographs and tables. These graphs and tables could be used to estimate the maximum subsidence, tilt and horizontal strain at any chosen sub-surface horizon associated with the extraction of a subcritical panel from the known corresponding maximum values at the surface.The proposed theoretical model can also be used to predict sub-surface subsidence components at any point within the zone influenced by the extraction of a panel from the corresponding surface subsidence components which may be obtained from field measurements or pre-calculated using any existing method of surface subsidence prediction. As an example, the profiles of surface and sub-surface subsidence at various horizons between the ground surface and the seam level resulting from the extraction of an assumed sub-critical longwall panel are predicted using the theoretical model together with the empirical method of surface subsidence prediction. The pattern of sub-surface subsidence movements in the strata overlying the panel is examined.     

天津滨海新区地面沉降预测方法研究

利用1985～2008年天津地面沉降监测资料,以水准监测点为基本研究对象,在分析其时间沉降的变化动态基础上,采用分段权函数线性模型提取沉降信息并进行外推预测,展示了天津滨海新区地面沉降现状,编绘了2008年天津滨海新区地面沉降年度沉降分布图和2008～2013年间地面沉降总量的预测分布图研究成果可供政府及有关部门制定和实施控沉管理决策参考,同时对存在类似问题的区域也有一定的参考价值。     

Site scale modeling of slow-moving landslides,a 3D viscoplastic finite element modeling approach

This paper presents an advanced 3D numerical methodology to reproduce the kinematics of slow active landslides, more precisely, to reproduce the nearly constant strain rate (secondary creep) and the acceleration/deceleration of the moving mass due to hydrological changes. For this purpose, finite element analyses are performed in a large area covering a long time-span (12 years), in order to exhibit different interacting slope movements. First, we perform a stability analysis using the shear strength reduction (SSR) technique with a Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria. It is done in order to compute factors of safety (FS) and to identify two different scenarios, the first one being stable (FS > 1) and the second one being unstable (FS < 1). In the studied test case, the Portalet landslide (Central Spanish Pyrenees), the first scenario corresponds to an initial stable configuration of the slope and the second one to an unstable excavated configuration. Second, taking the first scenario as an initial condition, a time-dependent analysis is performed using a coupled formulation to model solid skeleton and pore fluids interaction, and a simplified ground water model that takes into account daily rainfall intensity. In this case, a viscoplastic constitutive model based on Perzyna’s theory is applied to reproduce soil viscous behavior and the delayed creep deformation due to the excavation. The fluidity parameter is calibrated to reproduce displacements measured by the monitoring systems. Our results demonstrate that 3D analyses are preferable to 2D ones for reproducing in a more realistic way the slide behavior. After calibration, the proposed model is able to simulate successfully short- and medium-term predictions during stages of primary and secondary creep.     

盐岩地下储气库套管运行安全的可靠性分析研究

盐岩因其具有良好的蠕变特性、低渗透性以及损伤自我恢复特性成为国际上公认的最理想能源地下存储介质。在盐岩地下储气库运营过程中储库套管受到储气内压、材料参数和几何尺寸等不确定性因素的影响,为了评价这些随机风险因素对储库套管结构运行安全的影响,建立了盐岩储气库的套管结构模型和基于Von Mises屈服准则的套管结构功能函数,根据建立的结构模型和结构功能函数,应用响应面法结合蒙特卡洛抽样计算获得储库在高压和低压运行条件下套管结构可靠度的变化规律。可靠性分析表明,为保证套管运行安全,储库最低运行内压应大于3 MPa,最高运行内压应小于22 MPa,套管靴距离储库腔顶的距离应大于10 m,并应适当加大套管的壁厚和减小套管的内径。     

Three-dimensional numerical modeling of land subsidence in Shanghai,China

Shanghai, in China, has experienced two periods of rapid land subsidence mainly caused by groundwater exploitation related to economic and population growth. The first period occurred during 1956–1965 and was characterized by an average land subsidence rate of 83 mm/yr, and the second period occurred during 1990–1998 with an average subsidence rate of 16 mm/yr. Owing to the establishment of monitoring networks for groundwater levels and land subsidence, a valuable dataset has been collected since the 1960s and used to develop regional land subsidence models applied to manage groundwater resources and mitigate land subsidence. The previous geomechanical modeling approaches to simulate land subsidence were based on one-dimensional (1D) vertical stress and deformation. In this study, a numerical model of land subsidence is developed to simulate explicitly coupled three-dimensional (3D) groundwater flow and 3D aquifer-system displacements in downtown Shanghai from 30 December 1979 to 30 December 1995. The model is calibrated using piezometric, geodetic-leveling, and borehole extensometer measurements made during the 16-year simulation period. The 3D model satisfactorily reproduces the measured piezometric and deformation observations. For the first time, the capability exists to provide some preliminary estimations on the horizontal displacement field associated with the well-known land subsidence in Shanghai and for which no measurements are available. The simulated horizontal displacements peak at 11 mm, i.e. less than 10 % of the simulated maximum land subsidence, and seems too small to seriously damage infrastructure such as the subways (metro lines) in the center area of Shanghai.     

Instrumental monitoring of the subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal in the city of Murcia (Spain)

This paper presents the results of investigations of the generalized subsidence occurring in and around the city of Murcia, Spain. Based on this research, this is the first integrated investigation of its type performed in Spain. The phenomenon of ground consolidation in the city of Murcia leads to the appearance of severe cracking and settlement in buildings. Subsidence is the result of two factors: on the one hand, the nature of the ground in this area, as it is made of recent deposits of clay and soft limes filled in with clay–lime backfills in the top layers. On the other hand, the increase in groundwater withdrawal during the 1992–95 drought led to a decrease in the water level of a magnitude never before recorded in the city. The risk prevention management suggested convenience of the installation of a measurement network to study and follow the phenomena of the subsidence to quantify it and to calibrate this theoretical model. This network is composed of extensometers and piezometers, the best devices to measure moderate ground movements, which is the case of Murcia. The first phase (Phase I) of this study of ground settlement in the metropolitan area of Murcia involved the installation of a network with 22 extensometers and taking the first measurement series. In a second phase (Phase II), during a period of 4 years, measurements with extensometers were performed to make the analysis and calibration of the theoretical model. Experience and data analysis showed the convenience of installation of new control points with an incremental extensometer and a piezometer in close position with the aim of precisely correlating piezometric levels with the observed subsidence. The third phase (Phase III) started in 2007, a new control technique, based on radar interferometry (InSAR), is being employed to provide information about subsidence in areas not previously monitored.     

Exploring the effects of data quality,data worth,and redundancy of CO2 gas pressure and saturation data on reservoir characterization through PEST inversion

This study examined the impacts of reservoir properties on carbon dioxide (CO₂) migration after subsurface injection and evaluated the possibility of characterizing reservoir properties using CO₂ monitoring data such as spatial–temporal distributions of gas pressure, which can be reasonably monitored in practice. The injection reservoir was assumed to be located 1,400–1,500 m below the ground surface such that CO₂ remained in the supercritical state. The reservoir was assumed to contain layers with alternating conductive and resistive properties, which is analogous to actual geological formations such as the Mount Simon Sandstone unit. The CO₂ injection simulation used a cylindrical grid setting in which the injection well was situated at the center of the domain, which extended out 8,000 m from the injection well. The CO₂ migration was simulated using the latest version of the simulator, subsurface transport over multiple phases (the water–salt–CO₂–energy module), developed by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. A nonlinear parameter estimation and optimization modeling software package, Parameter ESTimation (PEST), is adopted for automated reservoir parameter estimation. The effects of data quality, data worth, and data redundancy were explored regarding the detectability of reservoir parameters using gas pressure monitoring data, by comparing PEST inversion results using data with different levels of noises, various numbers of monitoring wells and locations, and different data collection spacing and temporal sampling intervals. This study yielded insight into the use of CO₂ monitoring data for reservoir characterization and how to design the monitoring system to optimize data worth and reduce data redundancy. The feasibility of using CO₂ saturation data for improving reservoir characterization was also discussed.     

Numerical simulation of land subsidence induced by groundwater overexploitation in Su-Xi-Chang area,China

Su-Xi-Chang area is one of the typical regions in China which suffers from severe land subsidence. Various field monitoring records were integrated to study the characteristics and mechanisms of land subsidence in this region. The development of the land subsidence in this region shows a tight spatial and temporal correlation with the groundwater pumping. Based on the analysis of the field data, it is found that the deformation patterns of the hydrogeologic units are greatly related to the hydrogeologic properties and groundwater level variations. Some have an elastic behavior, others may have an elastic–plastic rheology. Hence, a 3D finite element numerical model considering the rheological properties of the soil was developed to simulate the groundwater level and land subsidence. Both hydraulic conductivity and specific storage were expected to vary with the porosity during the process of consolidation. Multiscale finite element method (MsFEM) was applied to solve the model during the period from 1996 to 2004. After calibrating the model with the observed groundwater level and subsidence data, the parameters of the multi-layers system were estimated. The calibrated model outputs fit reasonably well with the observed data. Consequently the model can be applied to predict groundwater level and land subsidence in future pumping scenarios. The model predictive results show that land subsidence rate can be controlled and even rebound may occur after the implementation of the groundwater exploitation prohibition. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

A study of surface subsidence and coal pillar safety for strip mining in a deep mine

Some villages and bridges are located on the ground surface of the working district no. 7 in the Wanglou Coal Mine. If longwall mining is adopted, the maximum deformation of the ground surface will exceed the safety value. Strip mining is employed for the working district no. 7 which is widely used to reduce surface subsidence and the consequent damage of buildings on the ground surface. To ensure the safety of coal pillars and improve the recovery coefficient, theoretical analysis and numerical simulation (FLAC 3D) were adopted to determine the coal pillar and mining widths and to discuss the coal pillar stress distribution and surface subsidence for different mining scenarios. The results revealed that the width of coal pillars should be larger than 162 m, and the optimized mining width varies from 150 to 260 m. As the coal seam is exploited, vertical stress is mainly applied on the coal pillar, inducing stress changes on its ribs. The coefficient of mining-induced stress varies from 2.02 to 2.62 for different mining scenarios. The maximum surface subsidence and horizontal movement increase as the mining width increases. However, when the mining width increases to a certain value, increasing the pillar width cannot significantly decrease the maximum subsidence. To ensure the surface subsidence less than 500 mm, the mining width should not be larger than 200 m. Considering the recovery coefficient and safety of the coal pillar, a pillar width of 165 m is suggested.     

Stability evaluation of underground gas storage salt caverns with micro-leakage interlayer in bedded rock salt of Jintan,China

Acta Geotechnica - Recent in situ pressure test indicates that there is a mudstone interlayer with high permeability in the open hole of the underground gas storage (UGS) salt caverns in Jintan,...     

基于InSAR的西安地面沉降与地裂缝发育特征研究

西安地区长期遭受地面沉降和地裂缝灾害。采用合成孔径雷达干涉测量（InSAR）技术对该区域1992年至今的地面沉降和地裂缝的时空特征进行了监测。主要分3个阶段进行,在每一阶段尤其对InSAR处理过程中的干涉图滤波进行了迭代自适应处理和相位解缠进行了顾及粗差的改正,通过与同期水准和GPS监测结果比较可得InSAR精度达1cm。从3个时间段的InSAR成果可以看出在空间分布上,西安市的东郊和南郊是沉降严重的区域;从时间发育来看,最大沉降阶段发生在1996年,最大沉降量达21cm,而2006年的最大沉降量减少到8cm,且沉降中心转移到西南郊;3个阶段均探测到活动地裂缝两侧的不均匀沉降,地裂缝的南侧沉降均大于北侧。该研究将为西安地区地面沉降和地裂缝的解释和减灾提供数据支持。