Summer circulation of the waters in Queen Charlotte sound

Abstract

An extensive set of measurements of currents, winds, subsurface pressures and water properties was undertaken in the summer of 1982 in Queen Charlotte Sound on the west coast of Canada. At most observation sites the summer‐averaged currents are found to be about 10 cm s^?1, smaller than the tidal currents but comparable to the standard deviation of the non‐tidal currents. The strongest average flow was the outflow of surface water past Cape St James at the northwestern corner of the Sound. During strong winds from the north or northwest a strong outflow of near‐surface fresher water was also observed over Cook Bank in the south. Eddies dominate the motion in the interior of the Sound, as shown by the behaviour of a near‐surface drifter that remained in mid‐Sound for 40 days before a storm pushed it into Hecate Strait. The disorganized, weak currents in the central Sound will likely allow surface waters or floating material to remain there for periods of several weeks in summer.

Empirical orthogonal function analyses of fluctuating currents, subsurface pressures and winds reveal that a single mode explains most of the wind and pressure variance but not the current variance. The first two pressure modes represent two distinct physical processes. The first mode is a nearly uniform, up‐and‐down pumping of the surface, while the second mode tilts across the basin from east to west, likely due to geostrophic adjustment of wind‐driven currents. This mode also tilts from south to north, owing to along‐strait wind stress. Most contributions to the first mode currents come from meters near shore or the edge of a trough. Coherence is high between these second mode pressures and first mode currents and winds, and lower but still significant between first mode pressures and first mode currents and winds. It is therefore difficult to predict the behaviour of currents in Queen Charlotte Sound in summer from pressure measurements at a single site, but the difference in sea‐level across Hecate Strait is a more reliable indicator.     

A performance comparison for two lagrangian drifter designs

Abstract

We compare the water‐parcel‐following and position‐reporting performance of two recent drifter designs. One (Tristar‐II ) uses the ARGOS satellite navigation system, has a very large drogue: float frontal area ratio and a small velocity error resulting from wind drag and surface wave forces. The second design uses an internal Loran receiver and transmits its position every half hour by radio. Its drogue: float frontal area ratio is much smaller than the TRISTAR's; we wished to know if this difference caused a significant change in drifter trajectory. Over a 78‐h joint deployment, the two designs had nearly identical trajectories. Measured drift speeds ranged from 10 to 30 cms^?1. Wind speeds (an important potential biasing factor) ranged up to 15 ms^?l. Net velocity difference over the full deployment was only 0.1 cms^?1. Frontal trapping of both drifters during the latter part of the comparison period may have helped to minimize this difference. But we also observed little or no downwind slippage (the net velocity difference was less than 2 cm s^?1 and was nearly normal to the wind and wave directions) during the first third of the deployment, when winds were strongest and the constancy of the water properties measured at drogue depth indicated no frontal trapping. Because the trajectories of the drifters were so similar, the most important differences in their performance were due to their position‐reporting and deployment characteristics. Initial deployment of the tristar was easier, and its positioning method and lower power requirement allow much longer untended deployments. The Loran design gave more frequent and precise positioning information and, therefore, better resolution of short‐time‐scale velocity fluctuations. It was also easier to find at sea, and to recover and redeploy.     

Analysis of deep‐drogued satellite‐tracked drifter measurements in the northeast pacific

Abstract

We analyse the trajectories of 24 deep‐drogued, satellite‐tracked drifters launched between 50 and 52°N in the northeast Pacific during June and October 1987. Three aspects of the observed motions at the drogue depths of 100 to 120 m are studied: (i) the spatial structure of the mean and variance velocity fields; (ii) the dispersion and eddy diffusion characteristics of the fluctuating motions; and (iii) the properties of selected mesoscale eddies.

The mean Lagrangian velocity field is consistent with the mean flow pattern derived from the historical dynamic height topography. Fluctuating motions within the region are dominated by mesoscale eddies and meanders. Several instances of persistent O(100 days) westward flowing countercurrents were also observed. Based on the Lagrangian integral time‐ and length scales, drifter motions become decorrelated within a period of 10 days and a separation of 100 km. The mean zonal and meridional integral time‐scales of 4.5 and 3.6 days, respectively, are nearly identical with those obtained by Krauss and Böning (1987) from deep‐drogued drifter tracks in the North Atlantic. Because of the relatively small (<100 cm² s^?2) kinetic energy values in the northeast Pacific, the corresponding mean Lagrangian length scales of 29.4 and 29.9 km are roughly half those for the Atlantic.

The observed drifter dispersion is generally consistent with Taylor's (1921) theory for single‐particle dispersion in homogeneous isotropic turbulence. Estimates obtained using 476 pseudo‐drifter tracks generated from the original records indicate that the dispersion increases linearly with time, t, within the first 3 to 5 days of launch and subsequently increases as t^1/2 (the random‐walk regime) within 10 days of launch. The respective peak zonal and meridional eddy diffusion coefficients of 4.1 × and 3.8 × 10⁷ cm² s^?1 are reached within 30 days of deployment. Similar estimates for the peak eddy diffusivities are obtained using dispersion curves for sets of 4 drifters launched at the same location during the June and October deployments. The dispersion of these clusters followed an exponential rather than a t^1/2 dependence over the first 70 days after release.

Eddies are predominantly clockwise rotary and are characterized by radii of 26 ± 16 km, periods of rotation of 16.0 ± 5.2 days, and azimuthal current speeds of 12.7 ± 8.6 cm s^?1. One eddy was tracked for over 10 months. Oceanographic data collected during the October deployment period showed the eddies have vertical extents of 500 to 700 m and are linked to isotherm depressions of over 100 m in the main pycnocline. All eddies in the bifurcation zone propagate to the west at roughly 1.5 ± 0.4 cm s^?1 counter to the prevailing mean flow and winds. These speeds are consistent with the westward phase speeds of first mode baroclinic planetary (Rossby) waves.     

The near‐surface circulation and exchange in the newfoundland grand banks region

Abstract

Analysis of 39 satellite‐tracked drifter records from the Newfoundland Grand Banks region has allowed maps of the mean and variable flows to be drawn. The variable currents are particularly large relative to the mean for the shelf, Flemish Cap and in the Newfoundland Basin. The ratio of the mean to variable flow is largest along the path of the Labrador Current. Drifters that either have been released on or migrate onto the Grand Banks remain therefor an average of 71 d. A statistical study of the effect of wind on drifter motion has shown that winds can only account for about 10% of current variability. This result is examined with consideration given to data noise, aliasing and non‐stationary conditions. Some drifters that were deployed in the Labrador Current moved onto the shelf and vice versa. These observations have been used to estimate the rate of exchange between the Current and the Grand Banks. Using this exchange rate in a box model, it is calculated that, over the iceberg season, 30% of the bergs will be in the Avalon Channel, 20% on the Grand Banks and 50% in the Labrador Current, in good agreement with the observed distribution. An alternative model based solely on advection is considered as well. The exchange model is also applied to the salinity budget for the Labrador Current with some success.     

Wind Forcing of Ice Cover in the Labrador Shelf Marginal Ice Zone

Abstract

Anemometer‐measured winds for the period 5–13 March 1994 were used to study the coherence of observed and forecast coastal winds along the mid‐Labrador shelf. The reliability of these variables in predicting the response of the ocean and ice to wind forcing is an important issue for ice forecasting in this area. Two anemometer‐equipped 2‐m ice beacons were deployed on pack ice north of Wolf Island and a third beacon was deployed on Grady Island. The results indicate that due to the influence of local topography, 10‐m winds observed at the meteorological station in Cartwright, Labrador provide a poor estimate (r² = 0.2) of wind conditions over the offshore sea‐ice. In contrast, the σ = 1 level (～10 m) winds from the Canadian Meteorological Centre's Regional Finite Element (RFE) model provided a better correlation with anemometer beacon winds (0.90 for the 6‐hour forecast down to 0.45 at 36 hours). However, the RFE model overestimates the magnitude of the winds by 10–40%.

The response of the ocean and ice cover to wind forcing was measured by an ocean bottom‐mounted acoustic Doppler current proþler (ADCP). Relative to the 2‐m beacon winds, the ice moved at 2.5% of wind magnitude and turned 0.6° to the left of the wind. The ocean response decreased with depth until it reached a constant value of 0.9% of the wind speed. The turning angle increased from 0.3° to the right of the wind at 3.5 m to 50° at the lowest level measured by the ADCP (73 m depth). Approximately 57% of the variance in the ocean currents at 3 m below the surface can be attributed to the 2‐m winds; at 73 m the explained variance decreases to 27%.     

Measurements of drifter cluster dispersion

Abstract

The motion of clusters of drifters in stratified coastal waters was studied. Wave‐like motion dominated the single‐particle statistics and had length scales larger than the cluster dimensions; consequently it was largely filtered out of motion relative to the cluster centroid. But the stochastic motion causing eddy diffusion seemed to be equally present in both single‐particle motion and motion relative to the cluster centroid. The single‐particle kinetic energy was 10 and 2 times the kinetic energy of motion relative to the centroid in summer and winter, respectively. The relative motion had longer Lagrangian integral time‐scales and smaller Eulerian spatial correlation scales than the single‐particle motion. Integral length scales of relative motion were of 0.1 and 0.2 times the standard deviation of drifter positions about the centroid for summer and winter ensembles, respectively. The y component of ensemble‐averaged relative eddy diffusivity in summer (0.21 m² s^?1) was much larger than that in winter (0.036 m² s^?1) whereas the summer x component (0.066 m² s^?1) was similar to that in winter (0.087 m² s^?1). The dispersion of individual clusters can vary considerably from that expected from the ensemble‐averaged eddy diffusivity. The cluster dispersion was intermittent, with long quiescent periods of gradual cluster deformation and short events causing rapid cluster deformation. In quiescent periods the centroid motion and velocity gradients were consistent with the kinematics of internal waves.     

Winter‐time near‐surface currents in the strait of Juan de Fuca

Abstract

During November 1976 to February 1977 near‐surface wind, current and temperature measurements were made at three sites along the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Strong tidal currents and major intrusions of warmer, fresher offshore coastal water were superimposed upon the estuarine circulation of near‐surface seaward flow. The r.m.s. amplitudes of the diurnal and semidiurnal tidal currents were ～30 cms^‐1 and 30–47 cm s^‐1, respectively. The vector‐mean flow at 4 m‐depth was seaward and decreased in speed from 28 cm s^‐1 at 74 km from the entrance to 9 cm s^‐1 at 11 km from the entrance. On five occasions intrusions of 1–3 C warmer northeast Pacific coastal water occurred for durations of 1–10 days. The 25 cm s^‐1 up‐strait speed of the intrusive lens agreed to within 20% of the gravity current speed computed from Benjamin's (1968) hydraulic model. The near‐surface currents associated with the intrusions and the southerly coastal winds were significantly correlated, indicating that the intrusions were initiated when shoreward Ekman currents advected Pacific coastal water into the Strait. The reversals were not significantly coherent with the along‐strait sea surface slope measured along the north side of the Strait nor were they strongly related to local wind forcing.     

Oceanographic features of Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound in Summer

Abstract

We present evidence of previously unresolved oceanographic features in Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait using data collected in the summer of 1990 and interpreted using a three‐dimensional, finite‐element diagnostic numerical model for two separate simulations: baroclinic flow without wind‐forcing and barotropic flow with wind‐forcing. Features include a strong, prevailing southward flow along the east coast of Moresby and Kunghit Islands, clockwise circulation around the edge of Middle Bank and a cold‐water plume flowing from the shallows at the north end of Aristazabal Island toward the south and through the trough between Middle Bank and Goose Island Bank A persistent (near‐surface) outflow into the Pacific Ocean is found near the surface within 20 km of Cape St. James at the southern tip of the Queen Charlotte Islands and intermittent surface outflows are observed across the mouth of Queen Charlotte Sound. In central Hecate Strait, to the north of Middle Bank, prevailing along‐strait currents are weak and there is an east‐west interleaving of two water masses: warm water from the west side of the strait and cold water from the east side.     

Wind‐driven depth‐averaged circulation in Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait

Abstract

We develop a wind‐driven depth‐averaged model of the circulation on the continental shelf around the Queen Charlotte Islands. The model captures a major feature of the winter current‐meter observations: a flow in Moresby Trough against the direction of the prevailing winds. Moresby Trough is a steep submarine canyon cutting across the shelf from the Pacific Ocean to the mainland. The flow patterns revealed by simulated drifters lead to four generalizations about the depth‐averaged, wind‐driven flow: (1) the flow is subject to strong topographic steering, (2) the exchange between Queen Charlotte Sound and the Pacific Ocean is limited to small regions near Cape St James and Cape Scott, (3) the exchange between Queen Charlotte Sound and Hecate Strait is controlled by Moresby Trough, and (4) the observed outflows past Cape St James are not explained by the dynamics of this model.     

A simulation of sea‐ice motion and distribution off Newfoundland during LIMEX,March 1987

Abstract

A coupled ice‐ocean dynamical model is applied to the simulation of sea‐ice motion and distribution off Newfoundland during the Labrador Ice Margin Experiment (LIMEX), March 1987. In the model, the ice is coupled to a barotropic ocean through an Ekman layer that deepens with increasing wind speed. A 6‐hourly gridded wind dataset was used as input to drive the ice and the ocean. The results show that ice velocities with ice‐ocean coupling are appreciably higher than those without coupling because of the generation of wind‐driven coastal currents. This suggests that coupled ice‐ocean dynamics should always be considered in short‐term sea‐ice models. The model gives reasonable agreement with the observed ice edge except in the southern boundary where ice‐melt has a strong influence on the ice‐edge position. Ocean currents, sea level and ice velocities computed from the model are in qualitative agreement with limited current‐meter, tide‐gauge, and ice drifter trajectory data.     

Are polynyas self‐sustaining?

Abstract

In this paper, 441 Conductivity Temperature Depth (CTD) casts from the North Water (NOW) Polynya study were used to calculate geostrophic currents between the 10 and 200 dbar surface during April, May and June 1998. Results for April and May indicated a surface intensified southward flow of 10 to 15 cm s^–1 with a small return flow along the Greenland coast in agreement with inferred currents described by Melling et al. (2001) and surface ice drifts found by Wilson et al. (2001). Southward transports at this time were 0.4–0.55 Sv in April and May. In June, however, surface currents diminished markedly: southward transports declined to 0.1–0.35 Sv, coincident with a decrease in directly measured winds over the polynya and in the surface barometric pressure difference between Grise Fjord and the Carey Islands that was used as a surrogate for the local north wind speed. There was no evident decrease in air pressure difference between Resolute and Grise Fjord, indicative of the strength of the north wind over the eastern Arctic in general. The results are consistent with present thinking that the NOW Polynya is primarily a latent heat polynya, forced by dominant north winds. The idea, broached here, is that the polynya creates its own microclimate which sustains the polynya's ice‐free condition after its initial formation. The mechanism is identified by an anomalous low pressure region associated with surface buoyancy flux in the polynya and is pursued through the application of a simple geostrophic adjustment model that suggests two self‐sustaining mechanisms. Firstly, the frontal intrusion of the cold ambient terrestrial air mass drives a significant surface wind that transports frazil ice to the edge of the polynya before it can congeal. Secondly, rotation at these high latitudes restricts the penetration of the front into the polynya, essentially insulating the centre from freezing temperatures.     

The feasibility of estimating large-scale surface wind fields for the summer MONEX using cloud motion and ship data

Cloud motion data were compared to ship observations over the Indian Ocean during the summer monsoon, 1 May to 31 July 1979, with the objective of using the cloud data for estimating surface wind and ultimately the wind stress on the ocean. The cloud-ship comparison indicated that the cloud motions could be used to estimate surface winds within reasonable accuracy bounds, 2.6 m s^-1 r.m.s. speeds and 22° to 44° r.m.s. directions (22° r.m.s. for winds < 10 m s^-1). A body of statistics is presented which can be used to construct an empirical boundary layer with the eventual goal of producing a stress analysis for the summer MONEX from cloud motion data.     

The oil spill behaviour model of the Canadian atmospheric environment service Part I: Theory and model evaluation

Abstract

This paper describes a model to simulate the behaviour of oil spills in marine environments. The model includes parametrizations of various physical processes representing the movement and weathering of an oil slick. The movement of the slick is affected by wind‐driven, tidal and residual water currents. Turbulent dispersion is an important mechanism influencing the horizontal spreading of the slick for time periods greater than about a day.

The model is used to simulate successfully the movement of spill‐following buoys deployed in the Bay of Fundy, where some of the strongest tidal currents in the world occur. The ability of the model to simulate the horizontal spreading of an oil slick was evaluated with observed data from the Argo Merchant oil spill for a 10‐day period. It was found that the observed shape and extent of the spill could be fairly well described by the parametrization of turbulent dispersion effects.     

Characteristics of Spatiotemporal Distribution of Sea Surface Wind along the East Coast of Guangdong Province

We analyzed the frequency distribution characteristics of wind speeds occurring at different offshore sites within a range of 0–200 km based on the sea surface wind data captured via buoys and oil platforms located along the east coast of Guangdong Province. The results of the analysis showed that average wind speed measured for each station reached a maximum in winter while minima occurred in summer, corresponding to obvious seasonal variation, and average wind speed increased with offshore distance. The prevailing wind direction at the nearshore site is the easterly wind, and the frequency of winds within 6–10 m s^–1 is considerable with that of winds at > 10 m s^–1. With the increase of the offshore distance, the winds were less affected by the land, and the prevailing wind direction gradually became northerly winds, predominately those at > 10 m s^–1. For areas of shorter offshore distance (< 100 km), surface wind speeds fundamentally conformed to a two-parameter Weibull distribution, but there was a significant difference between wind speed probability distributions and the Weibull distribution in areas more than 100 km offshore. The mean wind speeds and wind speed standard deviations increased with the offshore distance, indicating that with the increase of the wind speed, the pulsation of the winds increased obviously, resulting in an increase in the ratio of the mean wind speed to the standard deviation of wind speed. When the ratio was large, the skewness became negative. When a relatively great degree of dispersion was noted between the observed skewness and the skewness corresponding to the theoretical Weibull curve, the wind speed probability distribution could not be adequately described by a Weibull distribution. This study provides a basis for the verification of the adaptability of Weibull distribution in different sea areas.     

Statistical downscaling of sea-surface wind over the Peru�CChile upwelling region: diagnosing the impact of climate change from the IPSL-CM4 model

The key aspect of the ocean circulation off Peru?CChile is the wind-driven upwelling of deep, cold, nutrient-rich waters that promote a rich marine ecosystem. It has been suggested that global warming may be associated with an intensification of upwelling-favorable winds. However, the lack of high-resolution long-term observations has been a limitation for a quantitative analysis of this process. In this study, we use a statistical downscaling method to assess the regional impact of climate change on the sea-surface wind over the Peru?CChile upwelling region as simulated by the global coupled general circulation model IPSL-CM4. Taking advantage of the high-resolution QuikSCAT wind product and of the NCEP reanalysis data, a statistical model based on multiple linear regressions is built for the daily mean meridional and zonal wind at 10?m for the period 2000?C2008. The large-scale 10?m wind components and sea level pressure are used as regional circulation predictors. The skill of the downscaling method is assessed by comparing with the surface wind derived from the ERS satellite measurements, with in situ wind observations collected by ICOADS and through cross-validation. It is then applied to the outputs of the IPSL-CM4 model over stabilized periods of the pre-industrial, 2?×?CO₂ and 4?×?CO₂ IPCC climate scenarios. The results indicate that surface along-shore winds off central Chile (off central Peru) experience a significant intensification (weakening) during Austral winter (summer) in warmer climates. This is associated with a general decrease in intra-seasonal variability.     

The circulation and hydrography of conception bay,Newfoundland

Abstract

The hydrography and circulation of Conception Bay (Newfoundland) are described based on hydrographic, current‐meter and drifter data collected over four years (1988–1991). The seasonal cycles of temperature (‐1.6 to 13–17°C) and salinity (31–32.5) in the bay closely follow those on the adjacent shelf. Exchange of bottom water was observed in April 1989. Deepwater exchange was observed from late fall to early winter of 1989–90. Tidal currents are weak, 1–2 cm s^‐1 for the M₂ and K₁ constituents. Observed Eulerian mean currents (<3 cm s^‐1) are smaller than the standard deviation (1–11 cm s^‐1); however, there is a persistent outflowing current of 10 to 20 cm s^‐1 within 2 km of the shoreline on the eastern side of the outer bay. The Lagrangian correlation length scale is from 4 to 10 km, in agreement with the weak coherence squared (≤0.4) found between the fixed current‐meter sites separated by greater than 4–5 km. The variable currents (up to 20 cm s^‐1) tend to be cyclonic. Cyclonic eddies were observed near the mouth on the eastern side of the bay, adjacent to the outflow. A simplified fractal dispersion model gives residence times of 42 d similar to those obtained from a scaling analysis (30–40 d) and a diagnostic numerical model (30 d).     

Tide,Wind, and River Forcing of the Surface Currents in the Fraser River Plume

A long-term record of surface currents from a high-frequency radar system, along with near-surface hydrographic transects, moored current meter records, and satellite imagery, are analyzed to determine the relative importance of river discharge, wind, and tides in driving the surface flow in the Fraser River plume. The observations show a great deal of oceanographic and instrumental variability. However, averaged quantities yielded robust results. The effect of river flow, which determines buoyancy and inertia near the river mouth, was found by taking a long-term average. The resulting flow field was dominated by a jet with two asymmetric gyres; the anticyclonic gyre to the north had flow speeds consistent with geostrophy. The mean flow speed near the river mouth was 14.3?cm?s^–1, while the flow further afield was 5?cm?s^–1 or less. Wind stress and surface currents were highly coherent in the subtidal frequency band. Northwesterly winds drive a surface flow to the southeast at speeds of nearly 30?cm?s^–1. Southeasterly winds drive a surface flow to the northwest at speeds reaching 20?cm?s^–1; however, there is more spatial variability in speed and direction relative to the northwesterly wind case. A harmonic analysis was used to extract the tidally driven flows. Ellipse parameters for the major tidal constituents varied considerably in both alignment and aspect ratio over the radar domain, in direct contrast to a barotropic model which predicted rectilinear flow along the Strait of Georgia. This is a result of water filling and draining the shallow mud flats north of the Fraser's main channel. The M₂ velocities at the surface were also weaker than their barotropic counterparts. However, the shallow water constituent MK₃ was enhanced at the surface and nearly as strong as the mean flow, implying that non-linear interactions are important to surface dynamics.     

Extreme subsidence in the Agulhas-Benguela air mass transition

Analysis of three-dimensional wind profiles recorded by an acoustic sounder near Cape Town has indicated that extreme subsidence (-35 cm s^-1) is a mean feature throughout the atmospheric boundary layer (50–1000m) during summertime southerly winds. Over the SW Cape coast, the atmospheric subsidence translates into a N-S gradient of the mean summer water deficit (-20 to -32 cm month^-1). The rapid drying out of the air mass along a northward trajectory is linked to a number of factors including synoptic-scale divergence of the surface wind and the effects of the local orography which produce a hydraulic jump of the southerly wind. The along-coast reduction in sea surface temperature provides a major constraint on the height of the moist marine layer. As the depth of the marine air mass shrinks, its potential for inland penetration becomes limited. In addition, dry air is entrained towards the surface as evidenced by aerial survey data. A model is formulated which indicates the importance of the surface heat fluxes in reducing the depth of the Agulhas air mass as it passes northward over the SW tip of Africa during summer.     

The Trident Pacific model. Part 1: simulating surface ocean currents with a linear model during the 1993–1998 TOPEX/POSEIDON period

 Zonal advection by long equatorial waves has been shown to be an important process in the evolution of sea surface temperature in the central Pacific on ENSO time scales. The present study aims at investigating how well an oceanic model whose dynamics are based on long equatorial waves can simulate the large-scale surface zonal current variability. Thus an ocean linear model which can be run with two or three layers is validated against several sets of observations in the Pacific ocean (TOPEX/POSEIDON sea level, TAO zonal currents, surface current climatology). The surface layer (mixed-layer) has a constant depth. Therefore the layer model is equivalent to considering a shear layer solution and either one or two baroclinic modes. It allows evaluation of the impact of adding a second baroclinic mode on the simulation of surface currents. This evaluation is done for different friction parametrizations: a weak linear Rayleigh friction (24 months⁻¹), a strong linear Rayleigh friction (6 months⁻¹), and a new parametrization using quadratic friction in the momentum equation only. It is shown in all simulations using various Rayleigh friction parametrizations that the addition of a second baroclinic mode always improves the simulation of both the sea level and the surface currents, especially in the central western Pacific. In that region, there is a reduction of the propagating long Rossby waves whose amplitude is much too large when only one baroclinic mode is used. Despite this reduction, the use of a weak friction (24 months⁻¹) always yields results which compare only poorly to observations confirming results from previous studies. The use of strong friction (6 months⁻¹) improves the model simulation, but surface current variability still remains too large. Finally, the use of quadratic friction as proposed in the present study considerably improves the simulation of zonal currents and its comparison to all data sets. This result gives more confidence in the choice of such a simple model to further explore the role of zonal advection by long equatorial waves on ENSO time scales. Received: 28 May 1999 / Accepted: 18 May 2000