Some aspects of South Asia's groundwater irrigation economy: analyses from a survey in India, Pakistan, Nepal Terai and Bangladesh

Since 1960, South Asia has emerged as the largest user of groundwater in irrigation in the world. Yet, little is known about this burgeoning economy, now the mainstay of the region's agriculture, food security and livelihoods. Results from the first socio-economic survey of its kind, involving 2,629 well-owners from 278 villages from India, Pakistan, Nepal Terai and Bangladesh, show that groundwater is used in over 75% of the irrigated areas in the sample villages, far more than secondary estimates suggest. Thanks to the pervasive use of groundwater in irrigation, rain-fed farming regions are a rarity although rain-fed plots within villages abound. Groundwater irrigation is quintessentially supplemental and used mostly on water-economical inferior cereals and pulses, while a water-intensive wheat and rice system dominates canal areas. Subsidies on electricity and canal irrigation shape the sub-continental irrigation economy, but it is the diesel pump that drives it. Pervasive markets in tubewell irrigation services enhance irrigation access to the poor. Most farmers interviewed reported resource depletion and deterioration, but expressed more concern over the high cost and poor reliability of energy supply for groundwater irrigation, which has become the fulcrum of their survival strategy.

Groundwater socio-ecology and governance: a review of institutions and policies in selected countries

Groundwater is crucial for the livelihoods and food security of millions of people, and yet, knowledge formation in the field of groundwater has remained asymmetrical. While, scientific knowledge in the discipline (hydrology and hydrogeology) has advanced remarkably, relatively little is known about the socio-economic impacts and institutions that govern groundwater use. This paper therefore has two objectives. The first is to provide a balanced view of the plus and the down side of groundwater use, especially in agriculture. In doing so, examples are drawn from countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, China, Spain and Mexico—all of which make very intensive use of groundwater. Second, institutions and policies that influence groundwater use are analyzed in order to understand how groundwater is governed in these countries and whether successful models of governance could be replicated elsewhere. Finally, the authors argue that there is a need for a paradigm shift in the way groundwater is presently perceived and managed—from management to governance mode. In this attempt, a number of instruments such as direct regulation, indirect policy levers, livelihood adaptation and peoples participation will have to be deployed simultaneously in a quest for better governance.

Assessment of suffosion-related hazards in karst areas using GIS technology

This paper describes an application of the geographic information system (GIS) technology to a ground stability assessment in the karst area of Dzerzhinsk, Russia. In the stability analysis, the groundwater level changes in the karst aquifer could cause suffosion sinkholes when the gravitational force was greater than the soil strength. The GIS technology was used to combine various data and to delineate the zones of potential gravitational collapse and suffosion collapse in the area.

Impediments to the management of shared aquifers: A political economy perspective

The reliance on aquifers which are shared by more than one country is increasing. Yet, shared aquifers are only rarely addressed in international treaties, despite the wide recognition of the desirability of comprehensive coordinated management. In order to identify the impediments to reaching agreements on the management of shared aquifers, and the factors that may assist in overcoming these impediments, the political economy of transboundary groundwater exploitation is outlined, and the Israeli-Palestinian case examined. It is argued that the main impediment to the conclusion of international agreements on groundwater is the array of domestic power structures, and particularly the power of small cohesive interest groups. The analysis of the Israeli-Palestinian 1995 interim agreement, and the negotiations leading to it, suggest that this impediment can be overcome, if the domestic interests are recognized in advance, and addressed in the agreement. It also shows that high level politics can play a positive role in forcing water negotiators to conclude an agreement.

Development of a conjunctive use model to evaluate alternative management options for surface and groundwater resources

A conjunctive use model has been developed to evaluate alternative management options for surface and groundwater resources. A simple water balance approach was used to estimate net recharge to the aquifer. The groundwater model FEFLOW takes net recharge as an input for the water balance calculation and simulates flow in the groundwater under all boundary stresses. The developed model was applied to an irrigated area in the Indus Basin, Pakistan, to predict groundwater levels up to 2010 in response to the possible need for intervention in irrigation and/or agricultural practices. A geographical information system (GIS) was used to assemble various types of spatial data. The study revealed that an increase in pumpage from the present rate would further strain the scarce water resources. Lining of watercourses and adjustment in cropping pattern could be adopted as alternatives for better management of surface and groundwater resources.

The role of economic analysis in groundwater management in semi-arid regions: the case of Nigeria

The aim of this paper is to use an economic framework to derive decision making rules for river basin management with a focus on groundwater resources. Using an example from northern Nigeria, the paper provides an example of how decision making for sustainable water resources management may be facilitated by comparing net benefits and costs across a river basin. It is argued that economic tools can be used to assess the value of water resources in different uses, identify and analyze management scenarios, and provide decision rules for the sustainable use and management of surface and ground water resources in the region.

Remote sensing and GIS based determination of groundwater dependent ecosystems in the Western Cape, South Africa

Finding the location of groundwater dependent ecosystems (GDEs) is important in determining the extent of restrictions that need to be placed upon the abstraction of groundwater. Remote sensing was combined with geographical information system (GIS) modelling to produce a GDE probability rating map for the Sandveld region, South Africa. Landsat TM imagery identified the areas indicating the probable presence of GDEs and GIS assisted in their delineation. Three GIS models were generated: a GIS model predicting landscape wetness potential (LWP model) based on terrain morphological features; the LWP model was modified to highlight groundwater generated landscape wetness potential (the resulting GglWP model); and a groundwater elevation model was interpolated, combining groundwater level measurements in boreholes in the region with digital elevation model data. Biomass indicators generated from Landsat were classified and combined with the GIS models, followed by field verification of riverine and wetland GDEs. The LWP model provided the most accurate results of the three models tested for GDEs in this region.

A modeling study of seawater intrusion in Alabama Gulf Coast,USA

A numerical model of variable-density groundwater flow and miscible salt transport is developed to investigate the extent of seawater intrusion in the Gulf coast aquifers of Alabama, USA. The SEAWAT code is used to solve the density-dependent groundwater flow and solute transport governing equations. The numerical model is calibrated against the observed hydraulic heads measured in 1996 by adjusting the zonation and values of hydraulic conductivity and recharge rate. Using the calibrated model and assuming all the hydrogeologic conditions remain the same as those in 1996, a predictive 40-year simulation run indicates that further seawater intrusion into the coastal aquifers can occur in the study area. Moreover, the predicted intrusion may be more significant in the deeper aquifer than the shallower ones. As the population continues to grow and the demand for groundwater pumping intensifies beyond the 1996 level, it can be expected that the actual extent of seawater intrusion in the future would be more severe than the model prediction. Better strategies for groundwater development and management will be necessary to protect the freshwater aquifers from contamination by seawater intrusion.

Is self-regulation a myth? Case study on Spanish groundwater user associations and the role of higher-level authorities

Self-regulation of groundwater users offers tremendous potential for effective groundwater management. The attributes of higher-level authorities that are more likely to facilitate the beneficial management of groundwater in economic, social and environmental terms are discussed. For this purpose, eight groundwater user associations in Spain have been compared. Factors that support institutional change were analyzed, namely: salience, common understanding, trust and reciprocity, autonomy, prior organizational experience and local leadership. These factors are complemented by features that strengthen actions by higher-level authorities that oversee self-regulation by water users (clear boundaries, legitimate recognition of appropriators, facilitating roles, trust in cross-scale linkages, clear division of responsibilities, institutional culture and co-management model choices). Self-regulation includes the creation of reflexive organizations that are capable of learning, provided first, the administration itself is modernized to meet the challenges of self-regulation, and second, that ‘regulatory capture’ is avoided by external organizations, ensuring that the regulator and the regulated are not so close in their relationship as to be detrimental to effectiveness.

Visual methodologies through a feminist lens: South African soap operas and the post-apartheid nation

Using a discussion of South African soap operas, I will place the idea of visuality in a discourse analysis that incorporates a feminist epistemological lens, or an epistemology that integrates reflexivity and an acknowledgment of the dialogic nature of visual media. Through this discussion, I will examine the possibilities that dialogism provides for unpacking and exploring the politics of imperfect translation between the visual and the textual. These methodological interventions, I argue, will help enrich discussions of the visual’s role in the contested realm of geographic imaginations and move beyond the distanced position of the masculine gaze.

Challenges of governing groundwater in U.S. western states

Over the last several decades, water users in the western United States have increasingly turned to groundwater resources to support economic development, but few institutional arrangements were in place to govern groundwater use. Over time, numerous groundwater problems have emerged. Two closely related explanations for this are explored. Surface water sources were the first to be developed, and institutional arrangements to allocate surface water were the first to be devised. These arrangements are not particularly well suited for governing groundwater. Furthermore, the physical differences between rivers and aquifers lead to differences in the development of each type of water, and in production and organization costs. Groundwater development involves low upfront production costs, which individual water users can cover. Once groundwater users have individually invested in productive activities problems emerge, such as declining water tables. Thus, unlike surface water users, groundwater users are faced with devising institutional arrangements to coordinate their water uses after they have invested in and developed productive economic activities. Most western states regulate pumping, although groundwater users, in general, resist pumping limits. The discussion concludes with proposals for modifying the prior appropriation doctrine to better accommodate the active management of groundwater basins for long-term sustainability.

Land subsidence caused by groundwater exploitation in the Hangzhou-Jiaxing-Huzhou Plain, China

Hangzhou-Jiaxing-Huzhou Plain in northern Zhejiang Province, located between the Yangtze and Qiantang Rivers, is one of the regions where economic development is most rapid in China. Geological and hydrogeological surveys reveal a multi-layered aquifer system beneath the plain, which includes Holocene phreatic water layers and Pleistocene confined aquifers. Based on the historical records of groundwater extraction, groundwater levels, and ground settlement from 1964 to 2000, it is shown that ground subsidence has resulted from the continuously increasing extraction of groundwater from deep confined aquifers, and that the evolution of land subsidence can be characterized by a multifractal model. Based on this model, a set of empirical power-law relations have been established between: the land subsidence velocity and the annual groundwater extraction; groundwater drawdown and the annual land subsidence velocity; and the amount of land subsidence and the associated area of land. A set of indices are proposed for evaluating dynamic evolution of groundwater exploitation and land subsidence for the Hang-Jia-Hu Plain, from which the critical degree of evolution of land subsidence in the near future can be estimated using data on groundwater exploitation and water level changes.

Modeling stream-aquifer interactions in a shallow aquifer, Choele Choel Island, Patagonia, Argentina

A groundwater/surface-water interaction model was developed for the shallow alluvial aquifer of the Choele Choel Island in Patagonia, Argentina. In this semiarid climate, agriculture is sustained by an irrigation/drainage system. During the irrigation season, seepage losses through unlined distribution canals in irrigated fields contribute to elevated groundwater levels, jeopardizing fruit productivity in some areas. Moreover, high stream stages during the irrigation season interfere with groundwater drainage. The model utilized MODFLOW and its stream package, and was successfully calibrated for a historical irrigation season. Modeling results indicate that drainage through streams is significantly higher than drainage through artificial drains. The stream/aquifer relationship proved very responsive to water table rises caused by irrigation. This response manifested as changes in the gaining/losing character of stream reaches. A synthetic run aimed at isolating the effect of streamflow changes on groundwater levels showed that the effect of higher streamflows dissipates toward the interior of the island, disappearing completely at the island center. Even though some results were qualitative, the model helped to provide a better understanding of the coupled system to elucidate some of the causes of a rising water table on the island.

Contesting culture: a case study of commodification in Cuban music

After more than three decades of isolation from the West and a paralyzing economic crisis in the early 1990s, Cuba is increasingly globally active in both cultural and economic realms. In this paper I use Bourdieu’s (The fields of cultural production, 1993) fields of cultural production as a general frame through with to inspect the commercialization of Cuban music. Through a case study with Juan de Marcos Gonzalez, the creator of the Buena Vista Social Club, I explore the dialectical relationship of music as an expression of cultural and a cultural asset, and at the same time a commodity for the international market. I show that de Marcos uses his position between the international music industry and the local music scene in order to preserve cultural authenticity and survive economically. In doing so he challenges the all-to-typical place of the artist in the contested space of cultural production between the West and the Third World.

Mapping flood pressure points: assessing vulnerability of the UK Fire Service to flooding

A vulnerability index for the Fire Service in the UK has been designed to identify vulnerable locations during episodes of severe floods. Taking recent case studies with the UK Fire Service, the patterns of vulnerability, in terms of demand on time and resources, can be explained by investigating the environmental causes and their interaction with the adaptive capacity of the response agencies.

Modeling the impact of groundwater harvesting on the hydro-salinity of a saline catchment in southeastern Australia

Recharge to a saline, unconfined shallow-water-table aquifer is normally considered as an irrecoverable loss of water, but such thinking could be reviewed empirically. The use of an appropriate groundwater harvesting system does not only provide an opportunity to recover this lost water, but can also help in catchment salinity management and improvement. Agricultural-based land-drainage systems such as those that use serial biological concentration (SBC) of salts, provide examples of such harvesting methods. The impact of groundwater harvesting has been assessed on the hydro-salinity of a saline catchment in southeastern Australia through modeling. For both the below average rainfall and very wet years, the “do nothing” scenario resulted in increasing salinization in the catchment. However, after introducing a SBC system, groundwater salinity showed a decreasing trend while hydraulic heads tended to stabilize around the depth of subsurface collector wells. However, for a successful groundwater harvesting system, proper understanding of the groundwater flows and salt mobilization associated with a catchment is necessary. The outcomes of this modelling study have the potential to address similar issues (salinization) and/or needs (water harvesting) existing elsewhere in the world, particularly in semi-arid regions.

The future of the dolomitic springs after mine closure on the Far West Rand,Gauteng, RSA

Approximately 1.2 km of dolomitic limestone overlies the Far West Rand gold reefs southwest of Johannesburg, South Africa. This karst aquifer is partitioned into several groundwater compartments by predominantly north–south trending syenite dykes. Prior to mining, the primary water flow was westwards, decanting over dyke boundaries as a succession of springs along the Lower Wonderfontein Spruit. Dewatering of the overlying dolomitic aquifer for safety and economic reasons by deep gold mining operations, caused the water levels of four compartments to drop and their respective springs to dry up. By perforating dykes, formerly separated aquifers were hydraulically interconnected by mining. Using historical and recent data of water flow—surface and groundwater—and pumping rates, a geohydrological model is presented. The results suggest that the water tables will rise to their pre-mining levels within 30 years after mining ceases and that the dry springs will flow again, despite the compartments being connected by the extensive mining operations.

Glacio-lacustrine stratigraphy,aquifer characterization and contaminant transport: a case study in South Lake Tahoe,California, USA

A hydrogeologic model that has been used by many researchers and consultants to describe an area of South Lake Tahoe, California, USA impacted by MTBE contamination describes a relatively homogeneous unconfined aquifer comprised of poorly sorted glacial outwash deposits, within which water-supply wells are able to exert significant alteration in natural groundwater flow. A re-examination of the area’s hydrogeology is presented, which supports a layered heterogeneous aquifer system constructed of alternating fine and coarser-grained glacio-lacustrine depositional units. This re-evaluation was accomplished through a review of lithologic logs across an area of approximately 1 km², combined with observations of significant hydraulic head differences and knowledge of the depositional environments controlled by Pleistocene Lake Tahoe high stands. Many of the fine-grained units observed at depths from 6 to 15 m, although relatively thin, are generally continuous and serve as significant barriers to groundwater flow. The vertical migration of contamination across these fine-grained units to deeper groundwaters was facilitated by cross-screened monitoring wells installed as part of site investigation activities. This conclusion highlights the importance of geologic characterization and proper monitoring well construction at contaminated site investigations.

---

Electronic supplementary material   The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Spatial and temporal knowledge representation

Knowledge Representation (KR) originated as a discipline within Artificial Intelligence, and is concerned with the representation of knowledge in symbolic form so that it can be stored and manipulated on a computer. This article surveys that part of KR that is concerned with the representation of space and time, with particular reference to the use of such representations in geographical information science.

Managing for sustainability in an arid climate: lessons learned from 20 years of groundwater management in Arizona,USA

Substantial progress has been made within central Arizona in moving towards a more sustainable water future, particularly in transitioning the urban demand from a primarily nonrenewable groundwater-based supply to increasing dependence on the Colorado River, Salt River and effluent. Management efforts include a wide range of regulatory and voluntary programs which have had mixed success. The Department of Water Resources has learned a number of key lessons throughout the years, and this paper attempts to establish the water management context and identify those lessons for the benefit of others who may want to evaluate alternative approaches to groundwater management. Themes to be discussed include evaluating water management approaches in a public policy context, the effectiveness of alternative management approaches and the relative merits of regulatory vs. nonregulatory efforts, and the importance of high-quality data in making management decisions.