On the Measurement of Dewfall and Fog-Droplet Deposition

An observational study has been conducted concerning atmospheric dewfall and fog-droplet deposition with application to the formation and maintenance of fog layers. The relationship between dew and fog is discussed together with the challenges and requirements to measure representative values of their deposition to the surface. A practical instrument developed at the UK Met Office Research Unit, Cardington, is described. The instrument is a small portable device that uses a load cell to measure the weight of a pan upon which various types of natural and artificial canopies can be placed, and can measure dewfall and fog-droplet deposition to an accuracy of 0.0005 mm. Dewfall results from this device are shown for a selection of nights under varying conditions. On a given night the overriding factor determining the amount of dew deposition appears to be location. Several dewmeter devices were placed at different locations around the 18 ha Cardington field site for various clear nights and it was found that dew amounts varied significantly, depending on location: canopies with a more open aspect experienced more deposition by up to a factor of two. The results also suggest that the hygroscopic effect of a canopy, whereby water is absorbed into the canopy and topsoil layer before dew formation begins, is also important for the removal of atmospheric water vapour. Results indicate this effect can be of a similar magnitude to dew deposition. Measurements of fog-droplet deposition showed total water deposition rates did not change when thin radiation fog formed. When optically thick adiabatic fog formed, deposition rates were seen to decrease with time or be generally lower than for thinner radiation fog. Further observations are required to establish if the behaviours found are typical for all fogs.     

古尔班通古特沙漠地表土壤凝结水形成影响因素分析*

沙漠中水分条件是决定生态分异的关键因素,地表凝结水的产生对沙漠植物与结皮生物的水分补充有重要的作用。利用微渗计对古尔班通古特沙漠土壤表层凝结水形成特征及影响因素进行分析。研究表明沙漠土壤凝结水形成总量随着表层土壤生物演替从流沙、藻类、地衣和苔藓依次增加。分析影响凝结水形成的因素表明土壤中细粒物质以及地衣和苔藓生物相对土壤粗粒物质更有利于凝结水形成。在土壤结皮演替过程中土壤中的细粒颗粒含量增加的同时生物有机体含量也在增加,因而随着表层土壤生物演替凝结水形成量呈增加趋势。凝结水形成量与日均相对湿度、土壤湿度呈显著正相关,而与日均风速、日均温度、土壤温度呈负相关。研究说明在干旱的沙漠地带土壤凝结水是除降水以外补充表层土壤水分重要的水分来源。     

Mulching as a means of exploiting dew for arid agriculture?

A traditional mulching technique used in Lanzarote, Canary Islands, allows dry farming as well as pronounced water savings in irrigation. It is known to reduce evaporational losses, but is also supposed to enhance the nocturnal condensation of water vapour from the atmosphere. The mulch layer consists of porous volcanic rock fragments abundantly available on the island. The mulched surface is believed to cool rapidly and to be more hygroscopic than a bare soil surface. This was investigated during a field experiment conducted over 68 nights during different seasons in 2001 and 2002, as well as some simple laboratory measurements. It was found that nocturnal condensation on the mulch surface (max 0.33 mm) was lower than on the bare soil surface (max 0.57 mm) or any one of three alternative mulch substrates. However, a slightly stronger nocturnal cooling of the mulched as compared to the bare surface was present. It is shown that these contrary findings can be explained by the higher hygroscopicity of the dry loam soil, resulting in condensation gains beyond the strict definition of dew. Differences in plant-availability of non-hygroscopic dew water and hygroscopic water uptakes are discussed, and conditions under which mulching would show positive condensation effects are defined. This includes a theoretical section demonstrating that non-hygroscopic mulch layers of a proper thickness can provide small amounts of dew to plant roots at the mulch–soil interface. This condensation could also happen during the day and would be favoured by a high amplitude of the diurnal atmospheric moisture cycle.     

On the contribution of atmospheric moisture to dew formation

The relative contributions of dewfall (a flux of water vapour from air to surface) and distillation (a flux of water vapour from soil to canopy) to dew formation on closed canopy and bare soil surfaces are assessed, and the dependence of dew amount upon wind speed, absolute temperature, atmospheric stability, relative humidity, soil characteristics and cloudiness, all of which are significant factors, is evaluated. Some of these evaluations provide refinements to similar ones given in Monteith (1961). High dewfall rates are usually 0.06 mm hr^–1 over canopy or bare soil, though upon a canopy under soil-saturated and air-saturated conditions, rates of dew formation may reach 0.07–0.09 mm hr^–1 with contributions from distillation. Various sets of observations are reanalyzed to illustrate the importance of the horizontal advection of moisture in the nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) to observed high rates of dew formation arising from the atmospheric contribution of water vapour (dewfall). These locally observed high dewfall rates must be the result of small-scale or mesoscale horizontal advection of moisture in the NBL, since the humidity changes within the typically shallow NBL required to balance the loss of water at the surface are not observed. Over extensive areas of uniform surface (horizontal scales 10 km), such continuously high dewfall rates could only be balanced by a local supply of atmospheric moisture since advection of moisture would necessarily be small.     

On condensation oscillations

Condensation oscillations in showers and thunderstorms are represented by variations in the vertical air currents that are induced by the accumulation and fallout of condensed water. A simple analytic theory of condensation oscillations and calculations on more complete numerical models indicate that their period is approximately proportional to the inverse square root of the condensation function, i.e. the amount of condensate produced per unit rise of saturated air, and that the period is independent of the magnitude of thermal buoyancy.     

广东“回南天”现象分析及其预报

利用室内地板温度、气温、露点、湿度,以及NCEP 1°×1°分析数据等资料,对2012年广东2—3月冬春过渡季节"回南天"(高湿天气)的5次个例的天气形势、气象要素特征和物理变化过程进行了分析。结果表明:冷空气影响结束后,广东上空迅速转受暖湿空气控制,当室外空气露点高于室内物体温度时"回南天"现象就会产生;"回南天"是出现在冷暖急转的天气背景下的;冬春季节当持续控制广东的冷高压脊快速减弱,同时925hPa上有明显的偏南气流时,预报员就要考虑是否会出现"回南天"现象;气温快速回升,露点高于室内物体温度是"回南天"出现的必要条件,要重点分析未来露点的变化;"回南天"有两种结束方式,即冷性结束和暖性结束。     

CORRELATION BETWEEN PEAK INTENSITY OF EXTREME AFTERNOON SHORT-DURATION RAINFALL AND HUMIDITY AND SURFACE AIR TEMPERATURE IN SOUTHEAST COAST OF CHINA

Using hourly rainfall intensity, daily surface air temperature, humidity and low-level dew point depressions at 55 stations in the southeast coast of China, and sea surface temperature from reanalysis in the coastal region, this paper analyzes the connection between peak intensity of extreme afternoon short-duration rainfall (EASR) and humidity as well as surface air temperature. The dependency of extreme peak intensity of EASR on temperature has a significant transition. When daily highest surface temperature is below (above) 29°C, the peak rainfall intensity shows an ascending (descending) tendency with rising temperature. Having investigated the role of moisture condition in the variation of EASR and temperature, this paper discovered that the decrease of peak rainfall intensity with temperature rising is connected with the variation of relative humidity. At higher temperatures, the land surface relative humidity decreases dramatically as temperature further increases. During this process, the sea surface temperature maintains basically unchanged, resulting in indistinct variations of water vapor content at seas. As water vapor over land is mainly contributed by the quantitative moisture transport from adjacent seas, the decline of relative humidity over land will be consequently caused by the further rise of surface air temperature.     

Potential and limitations of using satellite data to evaluate the spatial detail in climatological air temperature maps

Abstract

Detailed patterns of spatial variability in surface temperature can be observed with the use of thermal infrared data from satellites. A method is developed to use clear‐sky thermal infrared satellite data to evaluate traditional monthly average maximum air temperature maps interpolated from observations at surface stations using a statistical thin plate smoothing spline method. Results of comparisons over Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan from June to October, for the years 2001 to 2005, are presented. The satellite data allow identification of some limitations in the interpolation technique at high altitudes in mountain ranges and in data‐sparse areas due to low station density. In the data‐sparse areas, the highest discrepancies could be linked to the unrepresentativeness of the stations because of different land cover or the presence of water bodies. Conversely, the interpolated air temperature maps allow the identification of problems with using thermal infrared data to estimate near‐surface air temperatures in areas of significant moisture deficit and at the locations of water bodies.     

Short timescale air-sea coupling in the tropical deep convective regime

Summary The relationship between surface rainfall rate and sea-surface temperature (SST) over tropical cloudy areas is revisited, and associated air-sea interaction processes are investigated based on hourly grid simulation data over cloudy areas from a two-dimensional coupled ocean-cloud resolving atmosphere model. A cloud-weighted data analysis shows that surface evaporation flux decreases with increasing SST and is one order of magnitude smaller than the residual between moisture convergence and condensation, playing a negligible role in moisture budget. Moisture convergence determines the surface rainfall rate by determining vapor condensation and deposition rates. Ocean mixed-layer thermal budget shows that the atmospheric surface flux is a major process responsible for SST variation while thermal advection and thermal entrainment play a secondary role. The results indicate that atmospheric impacts on the ocean are important whereas oceanic impacts on the atmosphere are not, in the tropical air-sea system, on short timescales. Thus, the relationship between surface rainfall rate and SST over tropical cloudy areas is not physically important. Further estimates indicate that the surface evaporation flux and residual between moisture convergence and condensation could have the same order of magnitude in daily-mean moisture budget.     

湿空气动热力学理论及应用研究进展

回顾了湿空气热动力学的研究进展,对未饱和湿大气、饱和湿大气及非均匀饱和湿大气的动热力方程、能量方程、连续方程等进行了梳理,指出饱和湿空气动量方程与非均匀饱和湿空气动量方程的最大区别在于对凝结过程的处理不同。饱和湿大气中,由于大气均是饱和的,由饱和造成的水凝物可处处出现,不能区分真正发生水汽凝结的区域。而非均匀饱和湿空气中,凝结发生与相对湿度的幂次方有关(即与凝结概率函数的分布有关),在相对湿度较小的区域不会出现水汽凝结,凝结区与非凝结区可自动区别,其描述的凝结过程与实际大气更接近。同时,总结了湿大气水汽凝结饱和非均匀分布的动热力物理量在高影响天气分析中的应用,最后讨论了未来推进湿空气动力学研究需重点考虑的一个内容。     

Spatiotemporal Variations of Cloud Amount over the Yangtze River Delta, China

Based on the NOAA's Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer(AVHRR) Pathfinder Atmospheres Extended(PATMOS-x) monthly mean cloud amount data, variations of annual and seasonal mean cloud amount over the Yangtze River Delta(YRD), China were examined for the period 1982–2006 by using a linear regression analysis. Both total and high-level cloud amounts peak in June and reach minimum in December, mid-level clouds have a peak during winter months and reach a minimum in summer, and lowlevel clouds vary weakly throughout the year with a weak maximum from August to October. For the annual mean cloud amount, a slightly decreasing tendency(–0.6% sky cover per decade) of total cloud amount is observed during the studying period, which is mainly due to the reduction of annual mean high-level cloud amount(–2.2% sky cover per decade). Mid-level clouds occur least(approximately 15% sky cover) and remain invariant, while the low-level cloud amount shows a significant increase during spring(1.5% sky cover per decade) and summer(3.0% sky cover per decade). Further analysis has revealed that the increased low-level clouds during the summer season are mainly impacted by the local environment. For example,compared to the low-level cloud amounts over the adjacent rural areas(e.g., cropland, large water body, and mountain areas covered by forest), those over and around urban agglomerations rise more dramatically.     

结露自动化观测装置及试验研究

文章介绍了一套结露自动化观测装置,由CCD图像传感器、露采集器和处理器构成。露采集器由三层带有磨砂区域的玻璃片组成,CCD图像传感器获取玻璃片的图像传送给处理器,结露时磨砂区域与未磨砂区域亮度差值发生变化,处理器自动提取亮度差值及变化信息,识别结露是否发生,从而实现对结露的自动化观测。为了定量分析自动化结露观测装置的性能,设计了观测试验,利用温湿度计观测露采集器附近的温湿度,分析研究湿度与亮度差值及结露的关系,试验结果表明,相对湿度大于97．9％时开始结露,玻片亮度归一化差值迅速降低。结露的信息获取率百分之百,结露自动识别率大于85％。     

辽宁地区一次罕见大雾天气成因分析

应用常规气象观测、加密自动站、能见度观测等资料和NCEP FNL再分析资料,对2014年辽宁地区一次罕见的长时间大范围强浓雾天气的成因进行诊断。结果表明：2014年11月20-22日辽宁地区大雾过程分为两个阶段,其中21日14-16时大雾爆发性发展后,特强浓雾持续12 h,此种情况在辽宁近20 a比较罕见。大雾第一阶段为辐射雾,雾前低层弱暖平流利于升温,大雾期间中层弱冷平流利于出现晴空辐射条件,夜间在辐射降温作用下,975 hPa高度以下形成逆温;气温下降、温度露点差减小、相对湿度增大;近地面微风利于降温,同时水汽不易流出,逆温作用使得水汽不易向高层扩散,近地面层水汽浓度增大,导致第一阶段大雾快速发展。大雾第二阶段为锋面雾,大雾快速发展期间无逆温、有弱冷锋过境,锋面附近辐合导致水汽上升冷却凝结,同时锋面附近低云降下雨滴在干冷空气中蒸发,利于近地面附近水汽饱和、冷凝,是大雾快速发展的原因。     

Urban and rural dewfall,surface moisture,and associated canopy-level air temperature and humidity measurements for vancouver,canada

Canopy-level humidity is often less at night during fine weather in a mid-latitude city, compared to its rural surroundings. This feature has been attributed, in part, to reduced urban dew, but links are largely unproven, because urban dew data are rare. In this study, surface moisture (i.e., dew + guttation by blotting) and dewfall (by mini-lysimeter) were measured at rural and urban residential sites in Vancouver, Canada, during the summer of 1996. Air temperature and humidity were measured at both sites, and on rural-to-urban vehicle traverses. Weather and location effects were evident. Humidity data suggested the small (< 1 g m^–3) urban moisture excess observed on fine nights was linked to reduced urban dew. For grass, the frequency of moisture events, and surface moisture amounts, were similar for both sites. However, on grass, rural dewfall (mean=0.10 mm per night) was more than urban dewfall (mean=0.07 mm per night). On the other hand, data for a roof lysimeter (mean dewfall=0.12 mm per night) showed that an urban roof could rival rural grass as a favoured location for dewfall in Vancouver.     

基于变分客观分析方法的青藏高原试验区夏季对流降水过程热动力特征分析

本文利用基于变分客观分析方法的物理协调大气分析模型,构建了青藏高原试验区大气热力—动力相互协调的数据集,并通过该数据集对青藏高原试验区夏季深厚及浅薄对流降水过程的热动力特征进行分析,结果表明:变分客观分析后的垂直速度场能更好地与实际观测的对流降水过程相吻合;深厚对流降水期高云含量多,整层大气为较强的上升运动,上升运动可达100 hPa左右,浅薄期高云含量少,上升运动仅能延伸到300 hPa左右;两种对流降水过程中视热源Q₁在低层为冷却作用,高层为加热作用,在深厚期中高层Q₁存在两个加热中心,中层受较强的水汽凝结释放潜热加热所影响,高层主要受过冷云水凝结成冰晶形成高云时释放的热量所影响;在浅薄期中高层Q₁只存在一个加热中心,大气的加热主要来源于水汽的凝结潜热释放;深厚对流降水期视水汽汇Q₂的加热作用可以延伸到200 hPa,而浅薄期仅到340 hPa左右。     

北京地区夏季边界层急流的基本特征及形成机理研究

首先指出了北京地区夏季边界层急流的基本特征, 即北京地区边界层急流一般出现在白天高温背景下或发生局地暴雨的夜间, 强度存在明显的日变化, 垂直分布具有明显的"鼻状"结构特征, 急流核高度一般为600～900 m.从中尺度扰动方程出发, 并通过天气过程演变实例, 研究了地形热力作用、局地强降水在边界层急流形成过程中的作用, 指出: (1)夏季高温背景下, 平原与山区之间温度梯度方向、强度的变化, 是造成低空风垂直切变加速或减速, 即边界层急流形成或消失的直接原因, 因此这种边界层急流的高度一般要低于山体的高度.(2)局地暴雨与边界层急流之间存在明显的正反馈现象: 由于局地暴雨同时改变了对流层中层和近地面层气温的水平分布, 这种热力强迫作用造成了边界层气流加速; 反过来, 边界层气流的加速又加强了急流前方的风速辐合--如果急流方向水平垂直于山坡, 这种迎风坡上的辐合将更强, 造成局地降水强度进一步增强.     

Towards Closing the Surface Energy Budget of a Mid-latitude Grassland

Observations for May and August, 2005, from a long-term grassland meteorological station situated in central Netherlands were used to evaluate the closure of the surface energy budget. We compute all possible enthalpy changes, such as the grass cover heat storage, dew water heat storage, air mass heat storage and the photosynthesis energy flux, over an averaging time interval. In addition, the soil heat flux was estimated using a harmonic analysis technique to obtain a more accurate assessment of the surface soil heat flux. By doing so, a closure of 96% was obtained. The harmonic analysis technique appears to improve closure by 9%, the photosynthesis for 3% and the rest of the storage terms for a 3% improvement of the energy budget closure. For calm nights (friction velocity u _* < 0.1 m s⁻¹) when the eddy covariance technique is unreliable for measurement of the vertical turbulent fluxes, the inclusion of a scheme that calculates dew fluxes improves the energy budget closure significantly.     

On condensation and precipitation of atmospheric moisture in the surface layer

Presented are the computations of condensation and precipitation of atmospheric moisture at night depending on the diurnal variations of air temperature and air humidity. Used are the meteorological data for northern Dagestan. Determined is the contribution of the dew to the moistening of the soil. The examples of the exponential and lognormal distribution of droplets revealed that the use of the velocity of medium-size droplet underestimates the value of the moisture mass precipitated on the soil. A concept of the mean mass precipitation velocity is introduced, and the formulae are provided for determining the average mass of deposited condensate depending on humidity, the temperature drop, and size distribution of droplets. Posed is a new problem of diurnal condensate precipitation in the soil in summer and of technology of its increase.     

Microphysical Properties of Rainwater in Typhoon Usagi(2013):A Numerical Modeling Study

A 2-km resolution simulation using the Weather Research and Forecasting model with Morrison microphysics was employed to investigate the rainwater microphysical properties during different stages of Typhoon Usagi(2013) in the inner-core and outer region. The model reproduced the track, intensity, and overall structure of Usagi(2013) reasonably. The simulated raindrop size distribution showed a rapid increase in small-size raindrop concentration but an oscillated decrease in large-size ones in the inner-core region, corresponding well with the upward motion. It was found that there existed two levels(1.25 and 5.25 km) of maximum number concentration of raindrops. The ice-related microphysics at high levels was stronger than the warm-rain processes at low levels. The larger raindrops formed by self-collection in the inner-core suffered from significant breakup, but the raindrops outside the eyewall did not experience evident breakup. Model results indicated that the dominant terms in the water vapor budget were the horizontal moisture flux convergence(HFC) and local condensation and deposition. The evaporation from the ocean surface(PBL) was ~10% of the HFC in the inner core, but up to 40% in the outer region as the air therein was far from saturation. Furthermore, water vapor in the outer region was obtained equally through evaporation from the cloud and inward transportation from the environment. An earlier start of cloud microphysical processes in the inner-core region was evident during the intensification stage, and the continuous decreasing of condensation in both the inner-core and outer regions might imply the beginning of the storm weakening.     

Urban Climatology Applied to the Deterioration of the Pisa Leaning Tower, Italy

Summary Among the peculiarities of the urban climatology, a relevant one concerns the interactions with monuments, which include stone weathering, deposition and removal of airborne pollutants. In order to know more about the case of the Pisa Leaning Tower, Italy, a field survey has been made for one year, measuring the microclimate interacting with the structure, the vertical temperature and humidity profiles, the Tower surface temperature at different locations and the concentration of particles in air. Also more general information was collected studying the meteorological parameters in the area of Pisa. The correlation between rainfalls and wind evidenced that the windborne droplets arrive from preferential directions, determined on the regional scale by the sea shore on the west (sea breeze) and the channelling operated by the valley of the Arno river on the west. The tilting of the Tower gives a natural shield to the southern part, which is hardly washed by rainfall. The complex balance between airborne particulate matter deposition, tower tilting, rainfall washout and surface runoff determines the pattern of the black crusts which disfigure the elegance of this historical building. The land and sea breezes transport air with different moisture content, and the urban heat island accentuates the mid day drop on relative humidity, determining condensation-evaporation cycles in the stone micropores. The urban climatology of Pisa and the interactions with the Leaning Tower are discussed in view of the conservation of this monument. Received December 28, 1998 Revised February 18, 1999