气候变化背景下的城市低碳发展水平测度

全球气候变化对全球自然系统和社会经济产生了显著的影响,近百年来的气候变暖已经成为既定的科学事实。目前,世界各国对于发展低碳经济、建设低碳城市及承担碳减排任务以应对气候变化的共识不断得到加强,在此背景下,低碳社会、低碳生活等理念为人们所广泛关注和推崇。本文综述了气候变化的科学事实、碳排放与城市化之间的内在联系;阐述了低碳经济、低碳城市、"脱钩"理论、环境库兹涅茨理论、生态足迹和碳足迹理论的理论内涵;评述了目前低碳城市发展水平的测度指标体系、计算方法和评价标准,重点分析了人均碳排放、碳生产率、碳排放强度和碳能源排放系数等城市低碳发展水平指标,以及DPSIR模型、生态足迹模型、主成分分析和层次分析综合模型等低碳发展水平评价模型。最后,提出了目前该研究领域存在的科学问题,展望了未来的研究重点和发展方向。     

全球1970—2007年碳排放与城市化关联机理分析

利用世界银行1970—2007年的112个国家（地区）的人均碳排放量和城市化率数据,基于SPSS与Eviews软件,分析城市化水平与人均碳排放量的关联机理。结果表明,随着城市化水平的上升,人均碳排放量逐步增加;40%的城市化率是人均碳排放变化的转折点;在相近城市化水平下,经济发展水平较高地区和化石能源主产区的人均碳排放高于其他地区。格兰杰因果检验表明,人均碳排放与城市化之间基本存在着格兰杰因果关系;地区之间的格兰杰因果检验结果既有共性,也有差异。     

基于脱钩指数和LMDI的青海省绿色低碳发展策略研究

推动青海省绿色低碳转型发展,既是推进黄河流域生态保护和高质量发展的迫切需要,也有助于缓解我国应对气候变化和碳减排工作压力。采用Tapio脱钩指数和对数平均迪氏指数(LMDI)分解法,在分析能源消费及碳排放变化与经济总量增长脱钩关系的基础上,对影响能源消费及碳排放的因素进行了分解研究,提出了推动青海省绿色低碳发展转型的着力点。主要结论：能源消费及碳排放与经济总量增长实现脱钩,且“十三五”时期“喇叭口”现象日益明显;人口和经济增长是能源消费和碳排放增长的主要驱动力;能源强度下降总体上减缓了能源消费和碳排放的增长,与第二产业能源消费强度变化密切相关;能源结构调整有效抑制了碳排放增长,且抑制作用不断增强;产业结构调整缓解能源消费需求的作用全面显现,但还需进一步调整第二产业结构。建议：提高有色金属冶炼、化工以及非金属矿物制品业等传统工业用煤效率和燃煤发电效率;减少对有色金属冶炼、化工等传统工业的过度依赖;推动风、光、水、火、储多能集约高效利用。     

中国2050年碳排放情景比较

从方法论、情景设置、宏观参数、能源消费量、能源消费结构、碳排放量、碳排放强度等几个方面,对国内外有代表性的6个中国碳排放情景研究进行了比较。在维持现有政策框架的基准情景下,尽管中国未来的能源结构持续优化,碳排放强度持续下降,但中国2050年的二氧化碳排放量将显著增长,排放量为119亿～162亿t。通过一定的低碳发展政策,在比较情景下,能源结构的优化和碳排放强度的下降更加明显,2050年碳排放量显著下降,排放量为43亿～95亿t。     

中国瑞典建筑碳排放对比及对中国建筑碳中和路径的启示

中国建筑领域用能亟需实现低碳能源转型。瑞典在经济合作与发展组织（OECD）国家中单位一次能耗碳排放强度和单位GDP碳排放强度皆为第二低,其低碳转型之路对于中国实现碳中和具有重要的参考意义。文中计算了瑞典建筑单位面积终端能耗强度与碳排放强度,结果表明瑞典建筑用能强度约为中国的2.3倍,而碳排放强度仅为中国的1/10。从建筑类别、建筑用能分项等多角度进一步展开对比研究,分析了瑞典建筑低碳转型采用的技术体系与政策机制,从优先节能理念、实现建筑电气化、减少建筑供热耗热量、构建零碳热源等方面提出了中国建筑领域实现碳中和的政策建议：我国需通过推广居民绿色生活方式、提倡“改善型”的室内环境营造理念避免未来建筑能耗出现显著增长,并通过建筑规范约束新建建筑保温性能、推进既有建筑节能改造等措施减少建筑采暖需热量,且需要促进各类余热资源和生物质燃料的收集与利用实现低碳供热,本文可为中国建筑部门低碳发展的战略规划提供参考借鉴。     

2000—2019年江西省能源消费碳排放变化及其影响因素

基于能源消耗数据,采用IPCC碳核算方法和LMDI分解模型,探讨了2000—2019年江西省一次能源消费碳排放的变化及其主要影响因素,并通过Tapio脱钩模型进一步分析了经济增长与能源碳排放脱钩特征。结果表明： 1） 一次能源碳排放量整体呈上升趋势,碳排放强度总体呈下降趋势,其中2015年以后碳排放量年均增长速度放缓、碳排放强度下降速度加快。2） 对碳排放量增加起促进作用的因素为人口效应、经济产出效应和能源结构效应,其中经济产出效应的作用最为显著;起抑制作用的要素为能源强度效应,能源替代效应不明显。与2000—2015年仅能源强度效应使碳排放量下降的情况不同,2015—2019年能源强度效应、能源替代效应和能源结构效应均使碳排放量下降,其中能源强度效应贡献率比2000—2015年高3倍。3） 经济增长与能源消费碳排放量以弱脱钩为主,其中2016—2019年脱钩弹性呈逐渐减小趋势。     

中国碳强度的影响因素

 基于自回归分布滞后模型,分析1980—2007年中国碳强度的主要影响因素。结果表明,碳强度与人均GDP、能源效率、工业增加值比重之间存在长期均衡关系。能源效率改进使碳强度下降,工业增加值比重上升使碳强度上升。人均GDP与碳强度之间存在倒U型关系。中国碳强度在20世纪90年代初就达到了转折点。但是,由于近年来能源效率下降和工业比重上升,中国的碳强度又出现反弹。     

基于LEAP模型的城市交通低碳发展路径研究——以广州市为例

以广州市为例,应用长期能源替代规划系统（LEAP）模型,通过设置政策情景、低碳情景和绿色低碳情景,模拟不同发展情景下广州交通领域未来的能源消费需求和CO₂排放趋势,分析城市低碳发展的方向和路径。结果显示,随着城镇化进程的加快和生产生活运输需求的增加,广州交通领域碳排放总量将持续增长,但增长速度有所放缓。政策情景下,广州交通领域的CO₂排放将于2035年左右达到峰值,严重滞后于广州市提出的碳排放总量达峰目标;低碳和绿色低碳情景下,通过加大低碳政策措施的力度,达峰时间有望分别提前到2025年和2023年。要实现城市交通的低碳发展,促进交通碳排放提前达峰,需要大力发展铁路和水路运输,全面落实公交优先发展战略,有效控制小汽车数量和出行频率,不断提高交通工具的清洁化和能效水平,逐步形成各种运输方式协调发展的综合交通运输体系,推动城市交通低碳发展。     

城镇化模式与低碳发展的关联分析——以石家庄市为例

不同城镇化发展模式对城市碳排放有显著影响。以石家庄市为案例,基于历年统计数据及实地调研数据,采用情景分析方法,定量核算石家庄市不同城镇化模式下的碳排放,结果表明在不同的城镇化模式下,石家庄市能源消费和碳排放将存在显著差异。与延续目前相对高碳的城镇化模式相比,在低碳城镇化模式下,2015—2030年,在城镇化率同样提升18.7%的情景下,碳排放的年均增速将由4.3%下降至0.4%,碳减排效果非常显著。     

城镇化背景下中国长期低碳转型路径研究

在中国经济步入新常态之际,为了研究城镇化背景下的长期碳排放趋势,构建了人口变动与能源系统互动的综合分析框架与社会经济-能源系统模型。结果显示,从2014年至2050年,预计有3亿人口从农村流向城市,并呈现从中小型城市逐步向大型和特大型城市汇集的趋势。人口流动趋势与人民生活质量改善结合,推动中国基础设施建设、工业产品生产和能源服务需求增长。基准情景下,2050年中国一次能源消费总量达到84亿tce,能源相关CO₂排放达到176亿t,比2013年增长83%;而在低碳转型情景下,通过技术创新,2050年中国一次能源消费需求可以控制在61亿tce左右,CO₂排放在2020—2025年间达峰,2050年比基准情景降低78%。低碳转型过程中,非化石能源电力和能效技术的减排潜力最大,工业和电力部门率先在2020年达峰,建筑和交通 ^①（①按照国际通行的能源系统部门划分标准和能耗概念,工业、建筑、交通均属于终端能源消费部门,其中建筑部门能耗指建筑运行能耗,而非建筑建造过程中的能耗;交通部门能耗指所有交通活动能耗,既包括交通运输业营运类运输工具的交通能耗,也包括私人、公务非营运类运输工具的交通能耗 ^[1]。）将在2030年左右达峰。实现低碳转型所需新增固定投资占GDP的1.5%,不会给国民经济带来重大负担。中国实施新型城镇化战略具有技术和经济可行性。     

Might electricity consumption cause urbanization instead? Evidence from heterogeneous panel long-run causality tests

The share of a population living in urban areas, or urbanization, is both an important demographic, socio-economic phenomenon and a popular explanatory variable in macro-level models of energy and electricity consumption and their resulting carbon emissions. Indeed, there is a substantial, growing subset of the global modeling literature that seeks to link urbanization with energy and electricity consumption, as well as with carbon emissions. This paper aims to inform both modelers and model consumers about the appropriateness of establishing such a link by examining the nature of long-run causality between electricity consumption and urbanization using heterogeneous panel methods and data from 105 countries spanning 1971–2009. In addition, the analysis of the time series properties of urbanization has implications both for modelers and for understanding the urbanization phenomenon. We consider total, industrial, and residential aggregations of electricity consumption per capita, three income-based panels, and three geography-based panels for non-OECD countries. The panel unit root, cointegration, and causality tests used account for cross-sectional dependence, nonstationarity, and heterogeneity – all of which are present in the data set. We cannot reject pervasively Granger causality in the urbanization to electricity consumption direction. However, the causality finding that is both the strongest and most similar across the various panels is that of long-run Granger causality from electricity consumption to urbanization. In other words, the employment and quality of life opportunities that access to electricity afford likely encourage migration to cities, and thus, cause urbanization. Also, nearly all countries’ urbanization series contained structural breaks, and the most recent post-break annual change rates suggested that nearly all countries’ rates of urbanization change were slowing. Lastly, future modeling work on energy consumption or carbon emissions should consider subnational scales of analysis, and focus on measures of urban density or urban form rather than national urbanization levels.     

Impact of climate and socioeconomic changes on fire carbon emissions in the future: Sustainable economic development might decrease future emissions

Fires and their associated carbon and air pollutant emissions have a broad range of environmental and societal impacts, including negative effects on human health, damage to terrestrial ecosystems, and indirect effects that promote climate change. Previous studies investigated future carbon emissions from the perspective of response to climate change and population growth, but the compound effects of other factors like economic development and land use change are not yet well known. We explored fire carbon emissions throughout the 21st century by changing five factors (meteorology, biomass, land use, population density, and gross domestic product [GDP] per capita). Compared to the historical period (2006–2015), global future fire carbon emissions decreased, mainly caused by an increase in GDP per capita, which leads to improvement in fire management and capitalized agriculture. We found that the meteorological factor has a strong individual effect under higher warming cases. Fires in boreal forests were particularly expected to increase because of an increase in fuel dryness. Our research should help climate change researchers consider fire-carbon interactions. Incorporating future spatial changes under diverse scenarios will be helpful to develop national mitigation and adaptation plans.     

Carbon reduction in the real world: how the UK will surpass its Kyoto obligations

Abstract

Carbon dioxide emissions from UK energy use have fallen by more than 20% over the last 30 years, and carbon intensity—carbon emissions per unit of GDP—has halved. These reductions have been achieved by a combination of decarbonisation of the energy system and substantial improvements in energy efficiency. Use of natural gas in power generation has been a big factor in recent years, but energy efficiency improvements in households and particularly industry have been more important over a longer period. Government policies designed primarily to address climate change have not been important contributors, until recently.

Future reductions in emissions will require more proactive policies. However, they are possible without any economic difficulties, notably by adopting cost-effective energy efficiency measures, using new renewable energy sources and reducing dependence on private cars. These policies will improve economic efficiency. The new UK Climate Change Programme includes policies that combine regulation, investment, fiscal measures and other economic instruments. By working with the grain of other social, environmental and economic policies, they can achieve far more than a carbon tax alone, set at any politically acceptable level. Modelling the costs of emission reductions using a carbon tax as the only instrument would not only massively over-estimate costs, it would bear little resemblance to real world politics.

The paper demonstrates that a more diverse set of policy instruments is likely to be an effective and politically acceptable approach in a mature industrial economy. It is concluded that the UK's Kyoto target of a 12.5% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is not challenging. The UK Government's target of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 20% between 1990 and 2010 is also achievable. By 2010 per capita emissions from the UK will be well below 2.5 tC per year. Claims that some countries, notably the USA, could not reduce per capita emissions below 6 tC per year seem inconsistent with this experience.     

我国城镇化对二氧化碳排放的影响机理研究

本文首先从规模、结构和效率3个方面在理论上分析我国城镇化对二氧化碳排放的影响机理。并利用1978-2012年的数据,采用对数迪氏平均指数分解方法（LMDI）量化分析规模效应、结构效应和技术效应的影响程度。结果表明：城镇化导致的经济增长是人均二氧化碳排放增加的主要拉动因素;而城镇化过程中结构调整是人均二氧化碳排放的主要拉低因素;城镇化过程中技术效应拉低了人均二氧化碳的排放,但与结构效应相比影响效果较小。研究认为：城镇化带来的结构变化的影响越来越重要,成为降低碳排放的最大因素,目前技术效应正在发挥作用,但是作用有限,如果要实现低碳城镇化,需要提高能源使用效率来发挥技术效应的作用。     

城市化、产业结构、能源消费、经济增长与碳排放的关联性分析——基于中国省际收入水平异质性的实证研究

在全国推崇节能减排,寻求低碳经济发展的大环境下,探究不同收入水平下各影响因子与碳排放的关联性有助于区域异质性碳减排政策的制定。根据2002—2016年的经济发展水平数据,将中国30个省及直辖市（不包含西藏及港、澳、台地区）划分为4个不同收入水平,分别建立面板向量自回归（PVAR）模型,并运用面板格兰杰因果检验、脉冲响应和方差分解探究城市化、产业结构、能源消费、经济增长与碳排放之间的关联性。研究结果表明,处于不同收入水平下的省份各影响因子与碳排放之间的关系存在异质性。收入水平较高的省份当前城市化水平已产生显著的减排效应,而欠发达地区仍处于城市化进程加速碳排放阶段;4个收入水平下能源消费均会长期影响碳排放,但欠发达地区更加需要摆脱能源依赖的经济发展路径,并且提高能源利用率从而降低碳排放;非高收入水平省份产业结构对碳排放造成的影响明显高于高收入水平省份。此外,实证结果表明,中国仍处于碳排放与经济发展的同步增长阶段,减排政策将会对经济增长产生负向反馈,故现有减排路径的选择需要高度审慎的设计与实施。     

Carbon reduction in the real world: how the UK will surpass its Kyoto obligations

Carbon dioxide emissions from UK energy use have fallen by more than 20% over the last 30 years, and carbon intensity — carbon emissions per unit of GDP — has halved. These reductions have been achieved by a combination of decarbonisation of the energy system and substantial improvements in energy efficiency. Use of natural gas in power generation has been a big factor in recent years, but energy efficiency improvements in households and particularly industry have been more important over a longer period. Government policies designed primarily to address climate change have not been important contributors, until recently.Future reductions in emissions will require more proactive policies. However, they are possible without any economic difficulties, notably by adopting cost-effective energy efficiency measures, using new renewable energy sources and reducing dependence on private cars. These policies will improve economic efficiency. The new UK Climate Change Programme includes policies that combine regulation, investment, fiscal measures and other economic instruments. By working with the grain of other social, environmental and economic policies, they can achieve far more than a carbon tax alone, set at any politically acceptable level. Modelling the costs of emission reductions using a carbon tax as the only instrument would not only massively over-estimate costs, it would bear little resemblance to real world politics.The paper demonstrates that a more diverse set of policy instruments is likely to be an effective and politically acceptable approach in a mature industrial economy. It is concluded that the UK’s Kyoto target of a 12.5% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is not challenging. The UK Government’s target of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 20% between 1990 and 2010 is also achievable. By 2010 per capita emissions from the UK will be well below 2.5 tC per year. Claims that some countries, notably the USA, could not reduce per capita emissions below 6 tC per year seem inconsistent with this experience.     

The emperor's new clothes: redressing the Kyoto Protocol

Abstract

US President Bush repudiated the Kyoto Protocol because, in his view, it is ‘fatally flawed in fundamental ways’. This paper evaluates seven proposals to redress the protocol according to their potential to deal with three key issues that have reinforced US intransigence: hot air, cost uncertainty and developing country participation. It argues that negotiations on intensity targets hold the most promise. Because intensity targets limit hot air, but do not limit economic growth, and a high variance of carbon intensity exists among countries with similar GDP per capita, intensity targets based on best practice levels might be agreeable to developing countries and the US. If a protocol specifying such targets were implemented, less warming would be associated with larger world GDP than would otherwise be the case, and countries' carbon intensity and emissions per capita would tend to converge to best practice levels at every stage of development.     

主要发达经济体从碳达峰到碳中和的路径及启示

随着气候变化影响加剧,全球气候治理进程加速,实现碳达峰已经成为全球气候行动的核心,各国也相继制定碳中和目标并开展行动。中国在第75届联合国大会一般性辩论上提出了碳达峰碳中和目标,部分已实现碳达峰的发达经济体也提出了各自的碳中和承诺。文中从“整体-阶段”及“焦点-公平”视角分析了欧盟和美国等主要发达经济体碳达峰的历程和特点,以及其碳中和目标和规划。研究发现,发达经济体在碳达峰过程中普遍经历了较长的爬坡期（58~136年）和平台期（4~20年),在碳达峰时,发达经济体的能源结构以油气为主,油气占一次能源消费比重为57%~77%,其人均排放量、历史累计排放以及人均GDP也都处于较高水平,在碳达峰前后总体处于经济与碳排放脱钩状态。各发达经济体的碳中和路径均以能源转型为重点,采用了多元化的政策工具,并且注重低碳和负碳技术的革新。根据发达经济体的政策展望,在实现碳中和时,均难以将绝对排放量降为零,都需要通过碳移除手段进行抵消。通过对比分析,发现中国的碳达峰和碳中和目标是具有雄心的气候承诺,相较其他发达经济体需要付出更大努力。建议运用全面综合的政策工具支撑碳中和目标的有效落实,加快中国的气候立法,在兼顾公正转型的同时推动能源结构调整,注重可再生能源和能效方面的新技术开发应用。     

The effect of African growth on future global energy,emissions, and regional development

Today Africa is a small emitter, but it has a large and faster-than-average growing population and per capita income that could drive future energy demand and, if unconstrained, emissions. This paper uses a multi-model comparison to characterize the potential future energy development for Continental and Sub-Saharan Africa under different assumptions about population and income. Our results suggest that population and economic growth rates will strongly influence Africa’s future energy use and emissions. We show that affluence is only one face of the medal and the range of future emissions is also contingent on technological and political factors. Higher energy intensity improvements occur when Africa grows faster. In contrast, climate intensity varies less with economic growth and it is mostly driven by climate policy. African emissions could account for between 5 % and 20 % of global emissions, with Sub-Saharan Africa contributing between 4 % and 10 % of world emissions in 2100. In all scenarios considered, affluence levels remain low until the middle of the century, suggesting that the population could remain dependent on traditional bioenergy to meet most residential energy needs. Although the share of electricity in final energy, electric capacity and electricity use per capita all rise with income, even by mid-century they do not reach levels observed in developed countries today.