Relation of in situ resistivity to water content in salt rocks1

The investigation of water in salt-rock formations is of particular relevance to underground nuclear waste repositories. In the Asse salt-mine (Germany) a study into the relationship of in situ resistivity to water content has been made. Measurements were carried out in older rock-salt using an electrode array in boreholes, an electrode profile in a drift and small resistivity sensors in and around a drift seal. Further measurements were made on moist zones in a contact area of younger rock-salt and carnallitite and also in older rock-salt with anhydrite bands using electrode profiles in the drifts. The resistivities range from 10²Ωm to 10⁶Ωm. Corresponding probes have water contents from 0.01% to 1.3%. A definite relationship between resistivity and water content is revealed which can be described by Archie's law using a cementation factor m of 1.9. Porosities are between 0.08% and 1.4% and the saturations vary considerably. An explicit influence of saturation on resistivity cannot be discovered using the present data. The results enable us to estimate the in situ water content and the order of the in situ porosity using resistivity surveys at different scales. This increases significantly the safety of a nuclear repository site.     

Saturation effect on electrical properties of hematitic sandstone in the audio frequency range using non-polarizing electrodes

This paper is devoted to study the effect of saturation, with distilled water, on AC electrical conductivity and dielectric constant of a fully and partially saturated hematitic sandstone sample (Aswan area, Egypt). The saturation of the sample was changed from full saturation to partial saturation by air drying. Complex resistivity measurements at room temperature (∼16° C) were performed in the frequency range from 10 Hz to 100 kHz. We used non-polarizing Cu/CuSO₄ gel electrodes. Experimental electrical spectra indicate, generally, that the electrical conductivity and dielectric constant vary strongly with water saturation and frequency. The low-frequency electrical conductivity and dielectric constant are supposed to be mainly controlled by surface conduction and polarization of the electrical double layer. Power law behaviours with frequency were noticed. The change in electrical conductivity and dielectric constant with increasing water content is fast at low saturations and slow at high saturations. The behaviour of the electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, with increasing water content, was argued to be the orientational polarization of bound water for very low saturations, displacement of the excess surface charges for relatively low saturations and free exchange of excess ions in double layer with the bulk electrolyte and generation of transient diffusional potentials, which lag behind the applied field for high saturations in addition to membrane polarization on clay and at inter-grain and grain surface water throats having selective charge transport properties. Also, from the data a semi-percolation behaviour was found that has a peak of dielectric constant at a certain concentration and an abrupt change in conductivity at another saturation.     

Influence of Degree of Saturation in the Electric Resistivity–Hydraulic Conductivity Relationship

The relationship between aquifer hydraulic conductivity and aquifer resistivity, either measured on the ground surface by vertical electrical sounding (VES) or from resistivity logs, or measured in core samples have been published for different types of aquifers in different locations. Generally, these relationships are empirical and semi-empirical, and confined in few locations. This relation has a positive correlation in some studies and negative in others. So far, there is no potentially physical law controlling this relation, which is not completely understood. Electric current follows the path of least resistance, as does water. Within and around pores, the model of conduction of electricity is ionic and thus the resistivity of the medium is controlled more by porosity and water conductivity than by the resistivity of the rock matrix. Thus, at the pore level, the electrical path is similar to the hydraulic path and the resistivity should reflect hydraulic conductivity. We tried in this paper to study the effect of degree of groundwater saturation in the relation between hydraulic conductivity and bulk resistivity via a simple numerical analysis of Archie’s second law and a simplified Kozeny-Carmen equation. The study reached three characteristic non-linear relations between hydraulic conductivity and resistivity depending on the degree of saturation. These relations are: (1) An inverse power relation in fully saturated aquifers and when porosity equals water saturation, (2) An inverse polynomial relation in unsaturated aquifers, when water saturation is higher than 50%, higher than porosity, and (3) A direct polynomial relation in poorly saturated aquifers, when water saturation is lower than 50%, lower than porosity. These results are supported by some field scale relationships.     

The cone penetration test and 2D imaging resistivity as tools to simulate the distribution of hydrocarbons in soil

The purpose of geophysical electrical surveys is to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution by making measurements on the ground surface. From these measurements, the true resistivity of the subsurface can be estimated. The ground resistivity is related to various geological parameters, such as the mineral and fluid content, porosity and degree of water saturation in the rock. Electrical resistivity surveys have been used for many decades in hydrogeological, mining and geotechnical investigations. More recently, they have been used for environmental surveys. To obtain a more accurate subsurface model than is possible with a simple 1-D model, a more complex model must be used. In a 2-D model, the resistivity values are allowed to vary in one horizontal direction (usually referred to as the x direction) but are assumed to be constant in the other horizontal (the y) direction. A more realistic model would be a fully 3-D model where the resistivity values are allowed to change in all three directions. In this research, a simulation of the cone penetration test and 2D imaging resistivity are used as tools to simulate the distribution of hydrocarbons in soil.     

DC GEOELECTRIC SOUNDING TO DETERMINE WATER CONTENT IN THE SALT MINE ASSE (FRG)*

In the course of investigations concerning disposal of radioactive waste, DC-geoelectric soundings were performed in the salt mine Asse in 1982. The survey resulted in the determination of resistivities of various salt formations. A comparison of various resistivities obtained in salt formations in the mine shows that it is possible to estimate the content of free water in salt using Archie's equation. The significant result of this survey is that salt formations in the mine can be divided into two categories according to their resistivities: 1. Salt with resistivity between 10⁷ and 10⁸Ωm (particularly Na2Sp and Na3β). The particularly pure halitic formations are to be found within this resistivity range. 2. Salt with resistivity between 10³ and 10⁵Ωm (Na2Tl, K2, transition salt). The salt formations with thin layers of anhydrite and a high content of hygroscopic salts are classified in the paper.     

FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC SOUNDING USING A VERTICAL MAGNETIC DIPOLE*

A horizontal transmitter loop (vertical magnetic dipole) is used for frequency electromagnetic (FEM) soundings. The frequency ranges from approximately 6 Hz to about 4000 Hz. The vertical and radial magnetic field components are measured for 20 frequencies per decade several hundred meters from the transmitter loop. A very small bandwidth is selected for amplification using a reference signal. An Apple computer is used for data acquisition. A computer program for Marquardt inversion optimizes the parameters for the n-layer case: the resistivities and thicknesses of individual beds and a correction factor for the primary magnetic field. Interpretation of each component individually yields practically the same parameters. Examples from the field are given with interpretation; comparison with dc resistivity measurements is provided. The ratio of vertical/radial magnetic field components vs. frequency can be transformed simply into apparent resistivity vs. apparent depth. This can be done in the field to obtain an estimation of the depth of the layer boundaries. FEM results are compared with Schlumberger d.c. sounding obtained at the same site.     

Determination of shale stiffness tensor from standard logs

A technique allowing inversion of the shale stiffness tensor from standard logging data: sonic velocities, density, porosity and clay content is developed. The inversion is based on the effective medium theory. The testing of the technique on laboratory measurements of the elastic wave velocities in shale samples shows that the inversion makes it possible to predict the elastic wave velocities V_P, V_S1 and V_S2 in any direction within an error of a few per cent. The technique has been applied for the stiffness tensor inversion along a well penetrating a shale formation of the Mississippian age altered by thin layers of limestone. It is demonstrated that the symmetry of a stiffness tensor inverted at the sonic frequency (2 kHz) is slightly orthorhombic and taking into account the experimental errors, can be related to the vertical transverse isotropy symmetry. For the productive interval of the shale formation, the Thomsen parameters ?, γ, and δ average, respectively, 0.32, 0.25 and 0.21, which indicate anelliptic behaviour of the velocities in this shale. The coefficients of anisotropy of this shale interval are around 24% and 20% for the compressional and shear waves, respectively. The values of the inverted velocities in the bedding plane for this interval are in good agreement with the laboratory measurements. The technique also allows inversion of the water saturation of the formation (Sw) and the inverted values are in agreement with the Sw values available for this formation. A Backus‐like upscaling of the inverted stiffness tensors is carried out for the lower and upper bounds of the frequency band used in the crosswell tomography (100 Hz and 500 Hz). These results can serve as an initial velocity model for the microearthquake location during hydrofracking of the shale formation.     

阿尔奇公式的适用性分析及其拓展

阿尔奇年代的储层孔隙结构简单,岩石孔隙可以被实验电解质完全充填,随着油气田勘探开发的逐步深入,对储层孔隙结构复杂程度的认识更加深入.发现岩石孔隙不仅有有效孔隙,也有无效孔隙.不仅有效孔隙导电,无效孔隙也导电,某些岩石骨架同样也导电.如何去除无效孔隙和其他各类岩石附加导电现象的影响,正确评价有效孔隙的贡献往往令人困惑.笔者发现：通过岩石电阻率计算地层因数只是在没有岩石附加导电环境下的特殊应用,在更为普适的条件下,地层因数实质是借助岩石电阻变化率反映孔隙连通性的重要参数.与物理学位移、速度的关系类似,电阻率和电阻变化率之间同样有着密切关系.这一观点的提出为在复杂孔隙结构条件下评价储层孔隙有效性提供了手段.     

饱和多相流体岩石电性的格子气模拟

利用计算机建立具有不同骨架颗粒形状和不同孔隙度的孔隙介质模型,采用格子气自动机方法模拟孔隙介质在油水饱和度不同的情况下电的传输特性,揭示了流体饱和度与介质电阻率之间呈现非阿尔奇现象的本质原因. 本文发现饱和度指数是饱和度和孔隙度的函数,反映了孔隙介质导电路径的复杂程度随饱和度变化而变化的情况,而不是传统地认为饱和度指数是流体分布状态的反映. 并得到新的饱和度计算公式. 以某油田为例,将计算的饱和度结果与实际岩芯实验的结果作对比,说明新公式的有效性.     

AN APPROACH TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF FINE SEDIMENTS BY INDUCED POLARIZATION LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS*

Time-domain-induced polarization (IP) laboratory measurements were performed on about 200 fine sediment samples with varying water content. The results permitted an analysis of IP properties of clays, loams, silts, and sands. Particular emphasis has been given to the analysis of the chargeability m as a function of lithotype and the water content. By analyzing decay curves, a new parameter was identified. It is a statistically specific characteristic of the lithotype and is independent of the water content. Therefore, it provides a diagnostic parameter for lithotype identification. In association with the values of chargeability and electrical resistivity, this parameter permits a reliable evaluation of water content and yields useful information about the porosity and permeability of the lithotype.     

Regional study of the anomalous change in apparent resistivity before the Tangshan earthquake (M=7.8, 1976) in China

Electrical resistivity measurements have been conducted as a possible means for obtaining precursory earthquake information. Before five great earthquakes (M>7,h<25 km) in China, the apparent resistivity _a showed systematic variations within a region 200 km from the epicenters. In particular, 9 stations in the Tangshan-Tianjin-Beijing region prior to the Tangshan earthquake (M=7.8,h=11 km, 27 July 1976) showed a consistent decrease of apparent resistivity around the epicenter, with a maximum resistivity change of 6% and a period of variation of 2–3 years. Simultaneous water table observations in this region showed a declining water table, and ground surface observations indicated a slight (5 mm) uplift in the epicenter region relative to its surroundings.In order to develop an explanation for the observed change of apparent resistivity associated with these great earthquakes, we have used Archie's Law to explore the effects of changes in rock porosity, water content and electrolyte resistivity on measured resistivity.Tentative conclusions of this study are as follows: (1) the apparent resistivity change is opposite to the effect expected from the simultaneous water table trend; (2) the dilatancy needed to give such resistivity variations (assuming Archie's Law holds) is much larger than that needed to explain the observed uplift (by 2–3 orders of magnitude); (3) salinity change in the pore electrolyte is a possible explanation for the variation in resistivity: an increase in the salinity would cause a proportional decrease in resistivity; the data needed to test this hypothesis, however, are lacking; and (4) the effect of changing geometry of rock pores or cracks due to pressure solution may provide an explanation for the decrease in apparent resistivity; it is different in nature from the effect of a volume change in response to stress although the geometry change is also closely related to the stress change.     

Geoelectrical and seismic prospections in hydrogeology: Model and master curves for the evaluation of porosity and water saturation

The prevailing purpose of geoelectrical exploration is the location of acquifers, as resistivity is strongly sensitive to the presence of water. Through this method valuable information on the structure and volume of storage rocks may be acquired. However, the evaluation of saturation and porosity, which plays a strong role in the estimation of hydraulic parameters, is hitherto affected by a large uncertainty. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out expensive and often numerous drillings, in addition to the calibration ones. In this paper we argue how the uncertainty can be substantially reduced by carrying out a joint seismic and geoelectrical prospection.to profitably utilize the results of a joint seismic and geoelectrical survey, a model is proposed in which the geophysical characteristics of all the phases possibly present in underground rocks, i.e., matrix, clay, water and air (whose percentages give porosity and saturation degree of an acquifer) are taken into account. The four phases are considered contiguous, in parallel as regards the electrical conductivity and in series as regards the propagation of elastic waves. On the basis of the formulas related to the model, theoretical curves for porosity, degree of saturation and percentage of clay have been obtained, which enable us to calculate these parameters.As a test of the suggested methodology, porosity and saturation have been evaluated in an area of the Campi Flegrei Caldera (Napoli) of which porosity data were available after core drillings. The test was performed by practising a joint electrical and seismic prospection using the more customary and less expensive techniques of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) and Seismic Refraction. Our data permit us to produce porosity and saturation maps for two depths; the comparison between the porosity, derived from the maps in the points where core drillings have been made, and the porosity values found on the cores, shows a good agreement for the more superficial layer; for the greater depth, we derived lower values of porosity, probably due to difficulties of laboratory reproduction of thein situ condition of the cores. These results suggest that our model has value in water research.     

Effect of pore geometry on Gassmann fluid substitution

Although there is no assumption of pore geometry in derivation of Gassmann's equation, the pore geometry is in close relation with hygroscopic water content and pore fluid communication between the micropores and the macropores. The hygroscopic water content in common reservoir rocks is small, and its effect on elastic properties is ignored in the Gassmann theory. However, the volume of hygroscopic water can be significant in shaly rocks or rocks made of fine particles; therefore, its effect on the elastic properties may be important. If the pore fluids in microspores cannot reach pressure equilibrium with the macropore system, assumption of the Gassmann theory is violated. Therefore, due to pore structure complexity, there may be a significant part of the pore fluids that do not satisfy the assumption of the Gassmann theory. We recommend that this part of pore fluids be accounted for within the solid rock frame and effective porosity be used in Gassmann's equation for fluid substitution. Integrated study of ultrasonic laboratory measurement data, petrographic data, mercury injection capillary pressure data, and nuclear magnetic resonance T₂ data confirms rationality of using effective porosity for Gassmann fluid substitution. The effective porosity for Gassmann's equation should be frequency dependent. Knowing the pore geometry, if an empirical correlation between frequency and the threshold pore‐throat radius or nuclear magnetic resonance T₂ could be set up, Gassmann's equation can be applicable to data measured at different frequencies. Without information of the pore geometry, the irreducible water saturation can be used to estimate the effective porosity.     

TEM study of the geoelectrical structure and groundwater salinity of the Nahal Hever sinkhole site, Dead Sea shore, Israel

Since the 1990s a large number of sinkholes have appeared in the Dead Sea (DS) coastal area. Sinkhole development was triggered by the lowering of the DS level. In the literature the relationship between the sinkholes and the DS level is explained by intrusion of relatively fresh water into the aquifer thereby dramatically accelerating the salt dissolution with creation of subsurface caverns, which in turn cause sinkholes. The main goal of our project was detection and localization of relatively fresh groundwater. During our study we used the transient electromagnetic method (TEM) to measure the electrical resistivity of the subsurface. As a test site we selected Nahal Hever South which is typical for the DS coast. Our results show that resistivity of the shallow subsurface reflects its vertical and lateral structure, e.g., its main hydrogeological elements explain the inter-relations between geology, hydrogeology, and sinkholes. The TEM method has allowed detailed differentiation of layers (clay, salt, etc.) in the subsurface based on their bulk resistivity. The 10 m-thick salt layer composed of idiomorphic crystals of halite deposited during the earlier Holocene period was extrapolated from borehole HS-2 through the study area. It was found that in Nahal Hever the typical value of the bulk resistivity of clay saturated with the DS brine varies between 0.2 and 0.3 Ωm, whereas saturated gravel and sandy sediments are characterized by resistivity between 0.4 and 0.6 Ωm. The high water salinity of the aquifer (enveloping the salt layer) expressed in terms of resistivity is also an important characterization of the sinkhole development mechanism. The electrical resistivity of the aquifer in the vicinity of the salt unit and its western border did not exceed 1 Ωm (in most cases aquifer resistivity was 0.2-0.6 Ωm) proving that, in accordance with existing criteria, the pores of the alluvial sediments are filled with highly mineralized DS brine. However, we suggest that the criterion of the aquifer resistivity responsible for the salt dissolution should be decreased from 1 Ωm to 0.6 Ωm corresponding to the chloride concentration of approximately 100 g/l (the chloride saturation condition reaches 224 g/l in the northern DS basin and 280 g/l in the southern one).Based on TEM results we can reliably conclude that in 2005, when most of sinkholes had appeared at the surface, salt was located within a very low resistivity environment inside sediments saturated with DS brine. Intrusion of relatively fresh groundwater into the aquifer through the 600 × 600 m²area affected by sinkholes has not been observed.     

APPLICATION OF BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS AT AN EXPERIMENTAL WASTE STORAGE SITE*

A suite of electrical, radiation, and mechanical borehole probes were run in a 76-mm-diameter borehole drilled to a slant depth of 380 m in leptite and granite. The hole is located in Precambrian bedrock in central Sweden where a site is dedicated to in-situ experiments pertaining to the disposal of radioactive wastes. The challenge to borehole logging methods for such site investigations is to resolve geological features and fluid flow parameters in geological sites which are initially chosen for their homogeneity, low porosity, and minimal fracturing. The Stripa borehole is characterized by high electrical resistivity values in the 20–100 kΩm range, by acoustic velocities around 5800 m s^-1 (which is close to laboratory values on intact specimens), and by total porosity of around one volume percent. In this context, probe resolution was adequate to produce interpretable information on almost all of the logs. Two principal rock types were encountered in the hole: granite, of quartz monzonitic composition, and leptite. The granite and leptite intercepts are subdivided into units characterized by mafic mineral content, sulfide mineral content, and electrical and radiation properties. Iron-rich zones in the leptite are highly anomalous on the gamma-gamma and neutron logs; thin mafic zones in the granite can also be distinguished. Occurrences of a few percent pyrite are detected by the electrical, gamma-gamma, and neutron logs. Although overall porosity is quite low throughout the hole, analysis of the resistivity and neutron logs indicates the porosity increases by a few volume percent at fracture zones. The differential resistance and caliper probes detect borehole diameter roughness of less than 1 mm, helping to confirm acoustic waveform anomalies which are indicative of fracture zones. Compres-sional wave transit time and shear-wave interference patterns usually occur coincident with open fractures observed in core, the correlation being especially good at major fracture zones.     

Water content and porosity estimated from ground-penetrating radar and resistivity

Both ground-penetrating radar and the resistivity method have proven to be useful tools for exploring water content variations, since related parameters such as dielectric constant and the resistivity of rocks and sediments are highly dependent on moisture content. These methods were used independently to estimate volumetric water content in the unsaturated zone and porosity in the saturated zone in a 100-m sandy section. Two sample sites along the profile were also chosen for a shallow geophysical investigation and soil sampling, to enable the calibration and verification of the indirect geophysical methods. The grain distribution at these sites is dominated by medium-sized sand (0.25–0.5 mm). The water content was 6.9 vol.% and calculated porosities are 37% and 40% respectively. At each of these sites the mean water content values calculated from resistivity are within one percentage unit of measured water content while those calculated from ground-penetrating radar give higher values by as much as 2.9 percentage units. The water contents in the unsaturated zone in the section, estimated from resistivity and ground-penetrating radar, show very similar trends, although that deduced from ground-penetrating radar is generally somewhat larger, consistent with the results from the sample sites. The mean porosity values obtained from the two methods in the saturated zone are in good agreement.     

Experimental study on frequency-dependent elastic properties of weakly consolidated marine sandstone: effects of partial saturation

Investigating seismic dispersion and attenuation characteristics of loosely compacted marine sandstone is essential in reconciling different geophysical measurements (surface seismic, well logging and ultrasonic) for better characterization of a shallow marine sandstone reservoir. We have experimented with a typical high-porosity and high-permeability sandstone sample, extracted from the Paleogene marine depositional setting in the Gulf of Mexico, at the low-frequency band (2–500 Hz) as well as ultrasonic point (10⁶ Hz), to investigate the effects of varying saturation levels on a rock's elasticity. The results suggest that the Young's modulus of the measured sample with adsorbed moisture at laboratory conditions (room temperature, 60%–90% humidity) exhibits dispersive behaviours. The extensional attenuation can be as high as 0.038, and the peak frequency occurs around 60 Hz. The extensional attenuation due to moisture adsorption can be dramatically mitigated with the increase of confining pressure. For partial saturation status, extensional attenuation increases as increasing water saturation by 79% with respect to the measured frequencies. Additionally, the results show that extensional attenuation at the fully water-saturated situation is even smaller than that at adsorbed moisture conditions. The Gassmann–Wood model can overall capture the P-wave velocity-saturation trend of measured data at seismic frequencies, demonstrating that the partially saturated unconsolidated sandstone at the measured seismic frequency range is prone to be in the relaxed status. Nevertheless, the ultrasonic velocities are significantly higher than the Gassmann–Wood predictions, suggesting that the rocks are in the unrelaxed status at the ultrasonic frequency range. The poroelastic modelling results based on the patchy saturation model also indicate that the characteristic frequency of the partially saturated sample is likely beyond the measured seismic frequency range.     

地电阻率与水位关系的机理分析

从地电阻率的观测理论出发, 指出地电阻率场地的电性结构、 岩石的饱和度和孔隙度决定了地电阻率和水位的关系。 在长期的观测资料基础上, 通过实例系统地分析了地电阻率和水位的关系, 给出了不同层位的水位变化和不同方式的水位变化对地电阻率观测结果的影响, 认为非构造水位变化与地电阻率的关系主要取决于表层土壤或岩石的水饱和度, 构造水位变化与地电阻率变化存在明确的相关关系, 从而进一步探讨了与前兆异常有关的水位和地电阻率变化。     

Geological controls on submarine groundwater discharge in Long Bay,South Carolina (USA)

A combination of geophysical methods including continuous electrical resistivity and high-resolution Chirp sub-bottom profiling were utilized to characterize geologic controls on pore fluid salinity in the nearshore of Long Bay, SC. Resistivity values ranged from less than 1 Ω m to greater than 40 Ω m throughout the bay. Areas of elevated electrical resistivity suggest the influence of relatively fresher water on pore water composition. Geophysical evidence alone does not eliminate all ambiguity associated with lithological and porosity variations that may also contribute to electrical structure of shallow marine sediments. The anomalous field is of sufficient magnitude that lithological variation alone does not control the spatial distribution of elevated electrical resistivity zones. Geographical distribution of electrical anomalies and structures interpreted from nearby sub-bottom profiles indicates abrupt changes in shallow geologic units control preferential pathways for discharge of fresh water into the marine environment. Shore parallel resistivity profiles show dramatic decreases in magnitude with increasing distance from shore, suggesting a significant portion of the terrestrially driven fresh SGD in Long Bay is occurring via the surficial aquifer within a few hundred meters of shore.     

SEISMIC AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF UNCONSOLIDATED PERMAFROST1

A model has been developed to relate the velocities of acoustic waves V_p and V_s in unconsolidated permafrost to the porosity and extent of freezing of the interstitial water. The permafrost is idealized as an assemblage of spherical quartz grains embedded in a matrix composed of spherical inclusions of water in ice. The wave-scattering theory of Kuster and Toksoz is used to determine the effective elastic moduli, and hence the acoustic velocities. The model predicts V_p and V_s to be decreasing functions of both the porosity and the water-to-ice ratio. The theory has been applied to laboratory measurements of V_p and V_s in 31 permafrost samples from the North American Arctic. Although no direct measurements were made of the extent of freezing in these samples, the data are consistent with the predictions of the model. Electrical resistivity measurements on the permafrost samples have demonstrated their essentially resistive behaviour. The ratio of resistivity of permafrost in its frozen state to that in its unfrozen state has been related to the extent of freezing in the samples. Electromagnetic and seismic reflection surveys can be used together in areas of permafrost: firstly an EM survey to determine the extent of freezing and then the acoustic velocity model to predict the velocities in the permafrost. The necessary transit time corrections can thus be made on seismic reflection records to compensate for the presence of permafrost.