Monitoring groundwater in the discharge area of a complex karst aquifer to assess the role of the saturated and unsaturated zones

The hydrochemical response at springs in the drainage area of the Sierra del Rey—Los Tajos carbonate aquifer (province of Málaga, southern Spain) was monitored in order to determine the hydrogeological functioning of this aquifer. Analysis of the most important chemical parameters, using methodologies such as the temporal evolution of chemical components, principal component analysis and discriminant factorial analysis revealed that the high level of hydrochemical heterogeneity to be found in this discharge zone, in addition to particular spatial and temporal factors, is responsible for the mineralisation of the spring water. Sampling in karst systems where discharge occurs by several springs should take into account the hydrochemical variability of them; otherwise conclusions about the hydrological functioning of aquifers deduced from mixture of spring waters can be inaccurate.     

岩溶水柜集流坡面的径流模式和调控建议

作为南方岩溶地区水柜水源的坡面径流,其形成和动态变化缺少精确且详细的解析。选择桂林丫吉试验场峰丛洼地的一个表层岩溶泉为对象,通过1个水文年多指标的监测,获得不同降雨条件下坡面径流的水文和水化学动态过程,以水文分析和水化学示踪解析径流水文特征、产流条件和水源组成。结果表明:坡面径流的水文过程季节性变化对比强烈,低水位总时长占全年的一半,连续时长超过3个月,全年连续断流有40多天,显示坡面径流水源不稳定,具有调控的必要性;受控于溶蚀作用的水化学动态展示了来自于多种界面的径流汇合过程;电导率等指标的波动共同指向降雨事件中形成于裸岩区的石面流发挥先锋作用。依据集流场的下垫面结构从3个方向提出调控建议:减少裸岩区径流渗漏;改善表层岩溶带通透性;揭露覆盖区隐伏径流。这些措施将有助于增加水柜蓄水量,提高径流利用效率。     

Investigation of karst hydrological processes by using grey auto-incidence analysis

The karst hydrological processes are the response of karst groundwater system to precipitation. The precipitation penetrates through the vadose zone, the subsequent groundwater pressure wave propagates to a spring outlet, and then, the spring discharge changes. This paper proposes a grey auto-incidence analysis for studying the karst hydrological processes. The method can detect the periodicity of a time series, for example, precipitation and spring discharge. Then the approach is applied to Liulin Springs Basin, China. The results show that the auto-incidence degree of precipitation reaches to the maximum (i.e., 0.816) when time delay equals to 8 years. The auto-incidence degree of spring discharge reaches to the maximum (i.e., 0.865) when time delay equals to 3 years. These results show that the periodicity of precipitation is 8 years, and of spring discharge is 3 years. The difference of periodicity between the precipitation and the spring discharge reveals that the processes of precipitation recharging groundwater and groundwater transport are regulated or controlled by karst aquifer. Because of heterogeneity of karst aquifer, the quick flow and base flow occur during the groundwater propagation, which causes the periodicity of spring discharge is not coincidence with of precipitation.     

Hydrogeological characterization and environmental effects of the deteriorating urban karst groundwater in a karst trough valley: Nanshan,SW China

The unique hydrogeology of karst makes the associated groundwater respond quickly to rainfall events and vulnerable to anthropogenic pollutions. In this study, high-frequency monitoring of spring discharge, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH, along with monthly hydrochemical and microbial analyses, was undertaken at the outlet of Laolondong karst underground river in Nanshan, southwestern China. The aim was to explore the environmental effects of the catchment’s urban area on the karst groundwater resources. The monitoring data of a tracer test and the response of discharge to rainfall events demonstrate that conduits and narrow fissures coexist in the Laolongdong karst aquifer. The EC, Na⁺, Cl^? and SO₄^2? values (840 μS/cm, 33.7, 38.6 and 137.2 μg/L, respectively), along with high concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria, at the outlet indicate considerable urban pollution in this area. The contaminants sulfate and nitrate showed different relationships with discharge and EC in different stages of a rainfall event. This behavior provided information about aquifer structure and the influence of transport properties. Meanwhile, the hydrological processes of groundwater flow could be modified by urbanization and result in increasing magnitude of urban floods in the underground river. In addition, sulfuric and nitric acids introduced by urbanization not only impact the karst groundwater quality, but also result in a significant perturbation to the carbon cycling system in the karst area.     

Initial assessment of recharge areas for large karst springs: a case study from the central Zagros Mountains,Iran

Sousan Spring emerges from the Keyno Anticline, Zagros Mountains (Iran), and the mean annual discharge is ~24 m³/s. Geological and hydrochemical evaluations suggest that the spring recharge is from the limestone Ilam-Sarvak Formation (Cretaceous) but the Mafaroon Fault, a major thrust feature, influences the regional groundwater flow path by juxtaposing other strata. Geological, geochemical, stable isotope and water balance studies were employed to interpret this behavior. Using the isotope data, the sources and elevations of the recharge area were found. Temporal variations of the isotopic data were compared with variations of electrical conductivity (EC). Unexpectedly, high EC was associated with a relative increase of discharge and depletion of δ¹⁸O. Several hypotheses were investigated and approximate water balance studies employed for validation. It was found that an elongated catchment on the Keyno Anticline plus a lesser catchment on a pair of parallel anticlines recharge the aquifer. While the long groundwater flow path along the Keyno Anticline plus guidance by Mafaroon Fault and the adjacent Garou shaly strata lead to increased EC in the Sousan Spring at the end of the dry season, a flow pulse from two adjoining anticlines (Mahalbakh and Shirgoon) arrives at the same time to increase the discharge and deplete the δ¹⁸O signal. Apparently the spring did not experience true base flow conditions during the recorded hydrological year. Although the spring response to specific precipitation events was similar to typical karst aquifers, standard interpretation of recession curves and related coefficients will not be practical at Sousan.     

The study of hydrodynamic behaviour of a complex karst system under low-flow conditions using natural and artificial tracers (the catchment of the Unica River,SW Slovenia)

In this study a multi-tracer test with fluorescent tracers was combined with time series analyses of natural tracers to characterize the dynamics of the solute transport through different recharge pathways and to study hydraulic behaviour of a binary karst system under low-flow conditions. Fluorescent tracer testing included the introduction of uranine, amidorhodamine G, or naphthionate at three injection points. Sampling and monitoring took place at two karst springs (Malenščica, Unica) and at two underground rivers (Pivka, Rak) recharging the Unica River at the Polje of Planina, SW Slovenia. Other monitored parameters included precipitation, spring or underground river discharge, water temperature, and electrical conductivity. Water samples were collected and analyzed for total organic carbon, Mg²⁺, SO₄ ²⁻, and NO₃ ⁻ in the laboratory. In the study area, results of the tracer test suggest that contaminant transport in karst may be retarded for several weeks during low-flow conditions followed by increases in contaminant concentrations after subsequent rainfall events. Based on interpretation of tracer concentration breakthrough curves, low apparent dominant flow velocities (i.e., between 5.8 and 22.8 m/h through the well developed karst conduits, and 3.6 m/h through the prevailing vadose zone with a dominant influence of a diffuse recharge) were obtained. Together with analyses of hydro-chemographs the artificial tracing identified different origins of water recharging the studied aquifer. During prolonged low-water conditions the Malenščica spring is mainly recharged from the karst aquifer and the Unica spring by the sinking Pivka River. After more intensive rainfall events allogenic recharge from Cerknica prevails in the Malenščica spring, while the Unica spring drains mainly the allogenic water from the Pivka Valley. These findings of alternating hydraulic connections and drainage areas due to respective hydrological conditions are important and should be considered when monitoring water quality, implementing groundwater protection measures, and optimizing future water exploitation.     

Hydrological modeling in the karst area,Rižana spring catchment,Slovenia

Karst aquifers are known for their heterogeneity and irregular complex flow patterns which make them more difficult to model and demand specific modeling approaches. This paper presents one such approach which is based on a conceptual model. The model was applied in a karst area of the catchment of Rižana spring (200 km2). It is based on the MIKE SHE code and incorporates the main hydrological processes and geological features of the karst aquifer (diffuse and concentrated infiltration, allogenic recharge, quick and slow groundwater flow, shifting groundwater divides and groundwater outflow from the catchment area). Modeling of evapotranspiration and flow in the upper part of the unsaturated zone is more detailed. For the modeling of groundwater flow in the karst aquifer, a conceptual model was applied which uses drainage function for the simulation of groundwater flow through large conduits (karst channels and large fissures). The model was calibrated and validated against the observed Rižana spring discharge which represents a measured response of the aquifer. The results of validation show that the model is able to adequately simulate temporal evolution of the spring discharge, measured by Nash–Sutcliffe coefficient (0.82) as well as overall water balance.     

贵州深切峡谷区典型岩溶地下河水文水化学特征

黔中水利枢纽水源工程——平寨水库位于贵州高原三岔河深切峡谷型岩溶区,是保障黔中地区水资源安全的重要水利基础设施。文章采用水文水化学自动监测技术,对前期水文地质基础研究较为薄弱的平寨水库区间流域内的重要支流——三塘地下河系统的水文水化学变化规律进行了研究,在此基础上探讨了深切峡谷型岩溶地下河系统的岩溶发育规律及管道模式。研究结果表明,该地下河系统水化学动态主要受覆被CO₂效应、有效降雨稀释效应和径流-排泄通道开放效应三者的控制。在不同时间尺度和大气降水条件下,水化学动态的总体变化特征不同,起主导作用的效应也有所不同。水温在年尺度上呈夏季高冬季低的变化规律,日尺度上呈昼高夜低的变化规律。电导率和水中CO₂分压的动态变化,年尺度下,在覆被CO₂效应与稀释效应的共同作用下总体呈现平水期较高丰水期较低;月尺度下,降雨初期可见明显的覆被CO₂效应,降雨后则为有效降雨的稀释效应主控;在旱季无雨条件下的日尺度上,可见由径流-排泄通道的开放效应造成的水化学日动态。径流-排泄通道开放效应的识别,可为今后在岩溶水系统模型化研究中判断岩溶管道的承压状态提供水化学方面的依据。本研究对今后该区开展地表与地下水库联合调度、水资源合理利用研究提供了一定的水文地质基础。     

岩溶介质非均质性对钻孔水物化指标垂向变化的影响

岩溶介质具有较强的非均质性,其地表及地下的岩溶结构形态多样。通过对钻孔结构描述、钻孔水物化性质分析,不仅能够掌握区域上岩溶含水层的结构特征,而且对于岩溶地下水演化过程的揭示亦有重要作用。文章以桂林岩溶水文地质试验场西南部峰丛山区与峰林平原交界处的钻孔为例,通过野外便携式多参数仪原位测试钻孔垂向水物化指标（pH值、水温T、电导率EC）,探索浅部（地面以下约50 m内）地下岩溶较为发育条件下钻孔水物化指标的垂向变化特征,揭示岩溶介质非均质性对钻孔垂向水物化指标的影响。结果表明:岩溶地区小范围内不同钻孔间的水物化性质有所差异,且岩溶发育相似的钻孔（如ZK4/ZK5、ZK7/ZK8）,其水物化指标垂向变化具有一定的相似性,但不同指标（T、pH、EC）的变化幅度存在差异;钻孔水物化性质受到试验场区岩溶介质结构非均质性的控制,即岩溶介质结构影响了地下水的赋存条件和水力联系而导致水物化性质的差异;在对岩溶地区地下水物化性质进行研究时应充分考虑岩溶介质的非均质性特征,根据实际的水文地质条件选取具有代表性的钻孔含水段进行取样和监测。      

Flow and solute transport monitoring in the karst aquifer in SW Slovenia

The role of the unsaturated zone in the karst aquifer hydraulic behaviour was brought into focus in these studies of the catchment of the Hubelj spring (SW Slovenia). The variations of natural tracers in precipitation and in groundwater during a summer storm event made it possible to trace local flow and solute transport in the observed aquifer. The results produced data on the aquifer recharge, storage and discharge processes, as well as on mechanisms that affected them, which reflects a karst groundwater dynamics also at a regional scale. They point out the significance of effects of the fast preferential flow—epiflow that is the main factor controlling solute/contaminant transport towards the aquifer saturated zone. Numerous arguments indicate that the karst aquifer flow and solute transport mechanisms depend on the hydraulic behaviour of the epikarst zone.     

宜昌潮水洞岩溶间歇泉动态特征及成因

潮水洞无降雨补给时仍有规律的间歇性流出,是典型的岩溶间歇泉,其流量、水化学动态规律及形成机制缺乏系统的研究.基于长期水文气象观测和水化学测试数据,分析了潮水洞不同时期流量、水温和电导率变化特征以及潮水洞岩溶水系统的水化学特征.潮水洞为多个岩溶水子系统的连接,其动态呈现为雨期和无雨期两个不同特征,且存在多个不稳定周期的间歇出流过程.通过c(Mg2+)/c(Ca2+)比值及水文动态特征辨识出间歇出流的地下水来源为天河板组灰岩含水层,随着过程流量的不断增加,深循环地下水占比最高达97%.结合水文地质条件概化出潮水洞岩溶水系统循环模式,天河板组灰岩含水层内虹吸管道的发育是间歇性动态特征的主要成因.      

典型岩溶包气带洞穴滴水水文过程研究——以桂林硝盐洞为例

选取桂林丫吉试验场硝盐洞为研究对象,通过示踪试验和高分辨率水文水化学监测,确定滴水补给来源,研究典型岩溶包气带洞穴滴水对降雨响应的水文过程。研究结果表明,硝盐洞XY5滴水主要受到两种径流成分补给,即集中补给的管道流和弥散流。硝盐洞上部包气带中可能存在表层岩溶带含水层,长期维持滴水流量。滴水流量、电导率和示踪剂浓度的峰值均出现在强降雨时段,表现出快速响应的管道流特征,存在降雨阈值引起硝盐洞滴水降雨响应。降雨前岩溶含水层水分条件是包气带水文响应差异的主要原因,雨季滴水对降雨响应迅速,XY5滴水对降雨响应的滞后时间为10 h;而旱季对降雨的响应滞后明显,滞后时间达9.8天,体现了土壤和表层岩溶带的调蓄作用。74.4 mm降雨量是旱季转雨季滴水响应的降雨阈值。借助于洞穴滴水的水文动态变化和示踪试验技术对于研究包气带水文过程,深入了解岩溶含水层结构及特征,揭示岩溶区降雨入渗补给机制具有重要作用。     

Analysis of hydrodynamic and hydrochemical behaviour of an aquifer using dialysis cells

Passive multi-level sampling using dialysis membrane diffusion cells is applied to the Chalk aquifer in order to estimate and monitor vertical contaminant distribution. This technique is associated with in situ profiles of field parameters which allow zones of groundwater flow to be established. Through three study cases (confined, semi-confined and unconfined aquifer conditions), the technique shows that vertical chemical heterogeneities are the particular result of flow zonation, or the renewal of water in the upper parts of the aquifer. The aquifer appears stratified or homogeneous according to depth depending on the chemical element being analysed, the sampling period (recharge period or not) and the hydrological situation (unconfined/confined zone). The high vertical resolution of this multi-level sampling also shows the influence of the Chalk lithology on hydrochemical variations, in particular for silica, iron and aluminium, in hardground and marly zones. By using these sampling techniques, the study emphasizes the importance of accurately measuring according to depth certain parameters such as temperature, electrical conductivity and the ratios of the major elements, in particular, Na/K, Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca. Interpretation of these measurements leads to an understanding of the local hydrodynamic and hydrochemical behaviour of an aquifer, and also allows geological heterogeneities to be located.     

Groundwater components in the alluvial aquifer of the alpine Rhone River valley, Bois de Finges area, Wallis Canton, Switzerland

Source, type, and quantity of various components of groundwater, as well as their spatial and temporal variations were determined by different hydrochemical methods in the alluvial aquifer of the upper Rhone River valley, Bois de Finges, Wallis Canton, Switzerland. The methods used are hydrochemical modeling, stable-isotope analysis, and chemical analysis of surface water and groundwater. Sampling during high- and low-water periods determined the spatial distribution of the water chemistry, whereas monthly sampling over three years provided a basis for understanding seasonal variability. The physico-chemical parameters of the groundwater have spatial and seasonal variations. The groundwater chemical composition of the Rhone alluvial aquifer indicates a mixing of weakly mineralized Rhone River water and SO₄-rich water entering from the south side of the valley. Temporal changes in groundwater chemistry and in groundwater levels reflect the seasonal variations of the different contributors to groundwater recharge. The Rhone River recharges the alluvial aquifer only during the summer high-water period. Electronic Publication     

娘子关泉域岩溶水SO42-、δ34S特征及其环境意义

在分析区域地质、水文地质条件及水化学同位素的基础上,研究了山西娘子关泉域岩溶水的SO42-、硫同位素分布特征。研究表明:（1）泉域西北、西南地区岩溶水的SO42-主要来源于石膏的溶解;（2）泉域中部汇流区岩溶水的SO42-含量高而δ34S值低,其中的SO42-主要来源于煤系矿坑水,这是因为温河、桃河及南川河沿岸的岩溶水接受了被矿坑水污染的河水的渗漏补给以及部分地区受到钻孔串层污染;（3）娘子关泉群中城西泉水中的SO42-主要来源于煤系矿坑水,而五龙泉和集泉站水中的SO42-主要来源于石膏的溶解;（4）泉域东北部及东部河流沿岸以外的地区,岩溶水中的SO42-主要来源于大气降水、石膏溶解,并受到所处地层岩性的影响。      

The vulnerability of karst springs—a case study of the Hubelj spring (SW Slovenia)

The hydraulic behaviour of the karst aquifer in the Hubelj spring catchment area (SW Slovenia) was studied by using an indirect research method based on natural tracers. The variations of natural tracers (in precipitation and in groundwater) during the storm event made possible the separation of the Hubelj spring storm hydrograph by the three-component separation technique. The results produced information on the aquifer recharge, storage and discharge processes, as well as on the mechanisms that affected them. They verified the so-called epikarst hypothesis presuming that an important part of a karst aquifer recharge reaches rapidly and intensively from the epikarst zone. It was demonstrated that epikarst water could occupy up to 50% of the spring discharge during precipitation events. This phenomenon could have important consequences on protection and management of the problems of karst aquifers, including engineering problems in karst areas. With this respect the results could give way to new engineering ideas.     

广西北海市地下水系统水化学特征的分析

对广西北海市近20年的地下水水质监测资料和2002-2003年野外实地取样的测试资料进行分析,并采用Piper图和Q型群分析进行水化学分类,结果表明该地区北部地下水以Ca·Na-HCO₃型为主,水化学特征显示地下水化学成分受降雨入渗和溶滤的影响,而南部地下水以Na-Cl或Na·Ca-Cl型为主。北海市天然条件下地下水的矿化度低,pH值低,呈偏酸性。低矿化度的雨水、可溶盐含量极低的含水介质、迅速的水循环以及长期的淋滤作用,导致了北海地区地下水低矿化度的特点。     

Temperature-driven meltwater production and hydrochemical variations at a glaciated alpine karst aquifer: implication for the atmospheric CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> sink under global warming

About two hydrological years of continuous data of discharge, temperature, electrical conductivity and pH have been recorded at the Glarey spring in the Tsanfleuron glaciated karst area in the Swiss Alps, to understand how glaciated karst aquifer systems respond hydrochemically to diurnal and seasonal recharge variations, and how calcite dissolution by glacial meltwater contributes to the atmospheric CO₂ sink. A thermodynamic model was used to link the continuous data to monthly water quality data allowing the calculation of CO₂ partial pressures and calcite saturation indexes. The results show diurnal and seasonal hydrochemical variations controlled chiefly by air temperature, the latter influencing karst aquifer recharge by ice and snowmelt. Karst process-related atmospheric CO₂ sinks were more than four times higher in the melting season than those in the freezing season. This finding has implication for understanding the atmospheric CO₂ sink in glaciated carbonate rock terrains: the carbon sink will increase with increasing runoff caused by global warming, i.e., carbonate weathering provides a negative feedback for anthropogenic CO₂ release. However, this is a transient regulation effect that is most efficient when glacial meltwater production is highest, which in turn depends on the future climatic evolution.     

天桥泉域岩溶水系统水动力场、水化学场特征分析

通过对天桥泉域岩溶水系统水动态和降雨量资料、万家寨水库水位与岸边岩溶水水位动态关系以及岩溶水化学成分进行研究分析,确定了研究区岩溶地下水的流动方向和强径流带的分布位置;总结出了动荡型、滞后型和消耗型三种类型的岩溶水动态变化特征,得出黄河岸边岩溶钻孔水位与水库水位变化同步等结论。在此基础上,对黄河进行了分段渗漏量计算,渗漏量可达6. 926m3 /s;绘制出了反映天桥泉域岩溶水化学成分变化的水化学三线图。      

The impact of hydrological conditions on salinisation and nitrate concentration in the coastal Velez River aquifer (southern Spain)

This study reports the impact of hydrological conditions on salinisation and nitrate concentrations of a coastal aquifer located at the Mediterranean Sea, southern Spain. Eighty-two samples of ground- and surface water taken during two extreme hydrological events between 1994 and 1996 at 25 different wells were evaluated with regard to hydrochemistry, focusing on nitrate concentrations and salinisation, which constitute the main hazard of this aquifer. Furthermore, hydrochemical data were analysed by principal component analysis (PCA). Additionally, in 2007 13 ground- and surface water samples taken at 12 different locations were analysed for stable isotopes of D/¹⁸O, and one sample was analysed for ¹⁵N. Since 1993 until present saltwater intrusion was observed only during dry hydrological conditions in 1994; it showed an irregular salinisation pattern probably related to locally elevated hydraulic conductivities. Nitrate concentrations increase significantly during wet hydrologic conditions owing to uptake of nitrate by rising groundwater. Stable isotopes of groundwater reveal an Atlantic origin of the precipitation that recharges the aquifer and a minor amount of groundwater recharge by the water coming from the La Viñuela reservoir, which is used for irrigation over the aquifer. ¹⁵N isotopes point to a considerable input of nitrates derived from organic fertilisers.