ENSO循环的数值模拟(Ⅱ)──变化性及时间尺度选择机制

利用热带太平洋海气耦合异常模式的３０ａ模拟结果，对模式ＥＮＳＯ的变化性及多重时间尺度过程进行了细致分析，建立了一ＥＮＳＯ循环多重时间尺度过程相互作用的非线性相似（Ａｎａｌｏｇ）模型，并提出了ＥＮＳＯ循环主周期形成的一种可能机制。指出：和观测事实类似，模式ＥＮＳＯ过程确实涉及到三种时间尺度，即３—４ａ主周期振荡（ＬＦ）、准两年振荡（ＱＢ）和年循环（ＡＣ）；其中，ＱＢ过程是线性海气耦合系统的本征模态，年循环（ＡＣ）对其形成没有本质的影响；３—４ａ主周期振荡（ＬＦ）是一非线性系统的自激振荡现象，其形成是线性系统的本征模即ＱＢ过程通过非线性机制尤其是通过大气辐合反馈加热的“单向性”过程在ＱＢ的暖态产生的减频增幅所致；平均年循环（ＡＣ）虽然不能对ＥＮＳＯ循环形成有本质影响，但它可明显影响ＥＮＳＯ循环的具体振幅和位相，使得ＥＮＳＯ循环具有明显的不规则性并对季节循环具有明显的“锁相”特征；ＥＮＳＯ变化性确是ＬＦ、ＱＢ以及ＡＣ多重时间尺度相互作用形成的。本文提出的ＥＮＳＯ循环时间尺度选择机制不仅解释了主周期振荡的形成过程，而且也较好地解释了ＥＮＳＯ变化的谱，因此，这一机制更接近于观测事实。     

热带沿海近地层大气的湍流结构和谱特征

利用１９９０年在海南省海口市天尾村的一次观测的资料，分析了速度分量谱、湍流强度等湍流特征量。这批资料多是有云影响情况下，稳定度参数（Ｌ）与热通量（ｗｔ）没有日变化规律，但湍能、平均温度仍具有日变化规律；湍谱的基本特征与晴天天气的谱基本相似，在惯性副区接近局地各向同性，速度谱符合相似理论的“－２／３”次方规律；根据Ｍ－Ｏ相似理论，探讨了各分量湍强δｉ／Ｕ＊（ｉ＝ｕ，ｖ，ｗ）与稳定度Ｚ／Ｌ的关系，表明各分量湍强与稳定度Ｚ／Ｌ仍具有“１／３”次方规律，但湍强和湍流能量比一般平坦地形下垫面的大     

近百年东亚季风长期变化中主周期振荡的奇异谱分析

运用海平面气压场资料，计算１８７３—１９９０年的东亚冬、夏季风强度指数，并利用奇异谱分析方法（ＳＳＡ）对这百年的东亚季风长期变化的周期活动进行了研究。研究表明：东亚冬、夏季风都存在准２ａ（ＱＢＯ）、３—６ａ（ＬＦＯ）的年际振荡，１６—１８ａ（ＩＤＯ）的年代际振荡和长期变化趋势。各振荡分量都具有年代际的差别，这种特征ＱＢＯ表现得最典型。冬季风的ＱＢＯ在１９２０年代前振幅较小，且大约呈现１２ａ的大振幅和６ａ的小振幅波状的周期变化；夏季风的ＱＢＯ振幅变化与冬季风相反，且大约呈现６ａ的大振幅和３ａ的小振幅波状的周期变化。夏季风中的年代际变化影响较小。     

南海——西太平洋海域热量平衡各发量的年变化特征及其与天气系统的关系

就海表面热量平衡Qι而言，它包括进入海平面的太阳总辐射Qs，海面有效回辐射Qb，蒸发耗热Qe，以及海洋与大气间感热交换Qc，它们之间的关系是：Qι＝Qs－Qb－Qe－Qc。本文对1965－1967年期间南海及西太平洋海域热量平衡各分量的月际变化进行了分析，结果表明：（1）海面热量平衡各人量的年变化中，季节变化是最显著的，各年之间具有共同性。（2）热量平衡各分量的季节变化对该地区的重要天气系统的作用是不一样的：（a）冬季感热加热带（也包括潜热）可能对移出大陆的气旋在海上加强有一定的贡献；（b）全年在低纬度海洋上一直存在的潜热加热带与台风活动有着密切的联系；（c）而进入海面的太阳总辐射可能对西太平洋副热带高压轴线的位移有一定的控制作用。     

咸阳周陵旱塬土壤水分变化特点

咸阳周陵旱塬土壤水分变化特点杨必仁（咸阳市气象局咸阳·７１２０００）在土壤水分平衡式中平衡项Ｑ＝Ｒ＋Ｇ＋Ｐ一（Ｈ＋Ｅ＋Ｆ＋Ｂ），收入项Ｒ（降水量）、Ｇ（毛管水）、Ｐ（灌溉量）；支出项Ｈ（作物蒸腾耗水量）、Ｅ（土壤蒸发量）、Ｆ（径流量）、Ｂ（土壤水分贮...     

近海层大气湍流通量系数研究

根据１９９４年９月１８～３０日南沙群岛海域渚碧礁的近海面大气湍流观测实验资料,分别计算了该海域光滑海面和粗糙海面上的空气动力粗糙度（ｚ０ ）、中性曳力系数（ Ｃ Ｄ Ｎ）。利用 Ｂｕｔｓａｅｒｔ 的假定,推导了求取标量粗糙度（ｚ Ｔ、ｚ Ｑ）、整体输送系数（感热交换系数 Ｃ Ｈ Ｎ、水汽交换系数 Ｃ Ｅ Ｎ ）的一组公式。在此基础上,分别计算和分析了该海域光滑海面和粗糙海面上空气动力粗糙度（ｚ０ ）、标量粗糙度（ｚ Ｔ、ｚ Ｑ ）、中性曳力系数（ Ｃ Ｄ Ｎ）、整体输送系数（感热交换系数 Ｃ Ｈ Ｎ、水汽交换系数 Ｃ Ｅ Ｎ）及其关于水平风速分量的分布,并得到了一些有益的结论。     

青藏高原大气热量源汇年际变化及其与大气环流的关系(英文)

本文使用１９６１～１９９５年逐月青藏高原地区大气机热量源汇＜Ｑ１＞资料、１９６１～１９９０年青藏高原地区积雪日数和积雪深度资料、美国ＮＣＥＰ／ ＮＣＡＲ的再分析资料以及１９７５～１９９４年全球ＯＬＲ资料，讨论了高原大气热状况年际变化及其与大气环流的关系，发现：高原地区大气热源年际变化明显，其中春季和秋季高原地区＜Ｑ１＞的变率最大，并且水平分布很不均匀；当冬季高原冷源弱（或强）时，东亚大槽位置偏东（或西），对应着东亚强（或弱）的冬季风；夏季高原热源强（或弱）的年份，在高原及其邻近地区的对流层中、低层为偏差气旋环流（或反气旋环流），在中国长江流域低层为异常的西南风（或东北风），对应着东亚强（或弱）的夏季风，夏季高原热源强度还与南亚高压的强度和位置有关；春季４月的积雪状况与夏季高原大气热源强度有明显关系；夏季高原热源与同期青藏高原东南部、孟加拉湾、中南半岛、东南亚、中国西南部、长江流域和从黄海到到日本海一带对流有明显正相关。     

印度洋-太平洋海温长期变化的周期性及其年代际变化

运用小波分析方法对近百年来印度洋－太平洋海温的周期变化特征进行了详细讨论,并且结合以前的工作,运用方差分析的方法对近半个世纪以来各周期振荡水平分布的年代际变化进行了综合分析。研究表明：近百年中,赤道东太平洋海温的长期变化不仅具有准两年（ＱＢＯ）和３－７年（ＬＦＯ）的年际振荡,而且具有１０－１２年、１８－２０年和３０－４０年的年代际振荡。各振荡分量的振幅和周期具有显著的年代际变化特征。近半个世纪各振     

“93.5”黑风暴发展期中尺度期热量和水汽收支诊断

１９９３年５月４—６日（“９３．５”）在我国西北地区发生了一次极具破坏力的“黑风暴”。为了诊断这次黑风暴发展期的热量和水汽收支，使用了具有高分辨ＰＢＬ参数化及４０ｋｍ细网络的ＭＭ４对该例控制模拟的输出资料和热量与水汽收支方程。对视热源（Ｑ１）和视水汽汇（Ｑ２）的诊断结果指出，Ｑ１的垂直积分在黑风暴的前部和后部分别呈现一条显著的加热带和冷却带。在黑风暴区，Ｑ１和Ｑ２的区域平均垂直廓线揭示，黑风暴的Ｑ１加热主要发生在对流层的上部，而其中部加热主要出现在发展初期；与Ｑ１相应，Ｑ２在低空和中空分别发生明显的增湿变冷和变干加热。这些结果不仅与因黑风暴过程而观测到的强剧强降温率一致，而且也为改进和发展用于模拟和预报黑风暴的中尺度数值模式提供了一些物理依据     

“93.5”黑风暴发展期中尺度期热量和水汽收支诊断

１９９３年５月４－６月（“９３．５”）在我国西北地区发生了一次极具破坏力的“黑风暴”。为了诊断这次黑风暴发展期的热量和水汽收支，使用了具有高分辨ＰＢＬ，参数化及４０ｋｍ经网格的ＭＭ４对该例控制模拟的输出资料和热量与水汽睡支方程，对视热源（Ｑ１）和视水汽汇（Ｑ２）的诊断结果指出，Ｑ１的垂直积分在黑风暴的前部和后部分别呈现一条显著的加热带和冷却带，在黑风暴区，Ｑ１和Ｑ２的区域平均垂直廓线揭示，黑风暴Ｑ     

Spatially explicit surface energy budget and partitioning with remote sensing and flux measurements in a boreal region of Interior Alaska

Extrapolating energy fluxes between the ground surface and the atmospheric boundary layer from point-based measurements to spatially explicit landscape estimation is critical to understand and quantify the energy balance components and exchanges in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. This information is difficult to quantify and are often lacking. Using a Landsat image (acquired on 5 August 2004), the flux measurements from three eddy covariance flux towers (a 1987 burn, a 1999 burn, and an unburned control site) and a customized satellite-based surface energy balance model of Mapping Evapotranspiration at High Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC), we estimated net radiation, sensible heat flux (H), latent heat flux (LE), and soil heat flux (G) for the boreal Yukon River Basin of Interior Alaska. The model requires user selection of two extreme conditions present within the image area to calibrate and anchor the sensible flux output. One is the “hot” condition which refers to a bare soil condition with specified residual evaporation rates. Another one is the “cold” condition which refers to a fully transpiring vegetation such as full-cover agricultural crops. We selected one bare field as the “hot” condition while we explored three different scenarios for the “cold” pixel because of the absence of larger expanses of agricultural fields within the image area. For this application over boreal forest, selecting agricultural fields whose evapotranspiration was assumed to be 1.05 times the alfalfa-based reference evapotranspiration as the “cold” pixel could result in large errors. Selecting an unburned flux tower site as the “cold” pixel could achieve acceptable results, but uncertainties remain about the energy balance closure of the flux towers. We found that METRIC performs reasonably well in partitioning energy fluxes in a boreal landscape.     

利用简化动力学近似分析黑河实验区的感热通量

本文利用简化动力学近似．运用统计和参数化两种方法分析了黑河实验区的感热通量．结果表明：不稳定条件下绿洲区的感热通量与近地面辐射温度(T3)和空气温度(Ta)之差符合幂定律方程；沙漠地区符合形式为H=f[u(T2-Ta)]的幂定律方程。利用从实验得到的热传输附加阻尼表示式kB^-1=0．2u(T2-Ta)用于对空气动力学阻尼(ra)的参数化，可适用于不同下垫面．并得到了比较满意的感热通量值．最后利用以上结果计算了实验区的潜热通量并做了比较分析。     

半干旱草原下垫面能量平衡特征及土壤热通量对能量闭合率的影响

土壤热通量在半干旱草原下垫面能量平衡研究中极为重要,土壤热通量估计不够准确是导致地表能量不平衡的一个重要原因。利用2008年6—9月锡林郭勒草原主生长期地表辐射、通量和土壤温度梯度观测资料,研究中纬度半干旱草原下垫面地表能量平衡特征。首先,在分析能量平衡各分量月平均日变化特征的基础上,通过对土壤热流量板观测的5 cm深度土壤热通量(G)的相位前移,研究了土壤热通量相位滞后对地表能量平衡产生的影响;其次,利用谐波分析方法,通过计算地表土壤热通量(Gs),分析了地表到热流量板之间的土壤热量储存对地表能量平衡的影响。结果表明:(1)将土壤热通量相位前移30 min,湍流通量与可利用能量(Rn-G)线性回归的斜率从0.835增加到0.842,地表能量闭合率提高了0.7%,但仍有15.8%的能量不闭合;(2)考虑了地表到热流量板之间的土壤热量储存之后,湍流通量与可利用能量之间的回归斜率达到0.979,能量不闭合程度仅为2.1%。     

1982—1983年冬季青藏高原地面加热场各分量的谱分析

本文所用资料为1982年11月1日至1983年2月28日青藏高原热源考察资料，改则、拉萨、那曲，甘孜四站的地面热源各分量进行最大熵谱分析。结果表明：地面热源各分量有准两周和准一周周期，由夏至冬地面热源各分量的周期转长。     

EVALUATION OF CORRECTIONS ON TURBULENT FLUXES OBTAINED BY EDDY COVARIANCE METHOD IN HIGH WINDS

This paper investigates processing of fast-response data and corrections of turbulent fluxes obtained by using eddy covariance method based on data collected at an offshore observation tower during three Cold-intrusion(CI)events in the South China Sea in 2010. This study presents the data processing procedure in detail and compares frictional velocities(u*), sensible heat fluxes(H) and latent heat fluxes(LE) yielded by using different averaging periods and different coordinate rotation methods; evaluates the sonic temperature correction for sensible heat flux and the Webb correction for latent heat flux as a function of 10 m wind speed(u10) during the CIs. The results show(1) that the different averaging periods of 30 min and 10 min cause biases of u*(H, LE) within 5%(15%, 62%). The values of u*(H,LE) averaged from 30 mins are mostly larger than those averaged from 10 mins. We suggest that the averaging period of 10 min is not sufficiently long to capture all scale eddies and recommend 30 min averaging period in calculating turbulent fluxes using eddy covariance method during CIs;(2) that the values of u*(H, LE) obtained from double rotation(DR2) and those obtained from planar fit rotation(PF) have good agreements and correlation coefficients between them are larger than 0.99. Because PF method requires unchanged environment and it is easier to apply DR2 method, we suggest DR2 coordinate rotation method in processing fast-response data; and(3) that the median values of frictional velocity(sensible heat flux and latent heat flux) binned according to 2 m s~(-1) intervals of u_(10) increase(decrease,increase) by less than 9%(4%, 10%) by Coriolis corrections(sonic temperature corrections, Webb corrections), which decreases(decreases, increases) with increasing u10 when u10 are 5-17 m s~(-1).     

Characteristics of Lake Breezes and Their Impacts on Energy and Carbon Fluxes in Mountainous Areas

In mountainous lake areas, lake–land and mountain–valley breezes interact with each other, leading to an "extended lake breeze". These extended lake breezes can regulate and control energy and carbon cycles at different scales. Based on meteorological and turbulent fluxes data from an eddy covariance observation site at Erhai Lake in the Dali Basin,southwest China, characteristics of daytime and nighttime extended lake breezes and their impacts on energy and carbon dioxide exchange in 2015 are investigated. Lake breezes dominate during the daytime while, due to different prevailing circulations at night, there are two types of nighttime breezes. The mountain breeze from the Cangshan Mountain range leads to N1 type nighttime breeze events. When a cyclonic circulation forms and maintains in the southern part of Erhai Lake at night, its northern branch contributes to the formation of N2 type nighttime breeze events. The prevailing wind directions for daytime, N1, and N2 breeze events are southeast, west, and southeast, respectively. Daytime breeze events are more intense than N1 events and weaker than N2 events. During daytime breeze events, the lake breeze decreases the sensible heat flux(Hs) and carbon dioxide flux(F_{CO_2}) and increases the latent heat flux(LE). During N1 breeze events, the mountain breeze decreases Hs and LE and increases F_{CO_2}. For N2 breeze events, the southeast wind from the lake surface increases Hs and LE and decreases suppress carbon dioxide exchange.     

An Assessment of CAMS-CSM in Simulating Land–Atmosphere Heat and Water Exchanges

The Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences (CAMS) has been devoted to developing a climate system model (CSM) to meet demand for climate simulation and prediction for the East Asian region. In this study, we evaluated the performance of CAMS-CSM in regard to sensible heat flux (H), latent heat flux (LE), surface temperature, soil moisture, and snow depth, focusing on the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project experiment, with the aim of participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6. We systematically assessed the simulation results achieved by CAMS-CSM for these variables against various reference products and ground observations, including the FLUXNET model tree ensembles H and LE data, Climate Prediction Center soil moisture data, snow depth climatology data, and Chinese ground observations of snow depth and winter surface temperature. We compared these results with data from the ECMWF Interim reanalysis (ERA-Interim) and Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS). Our results indicated that CAMS-CSM simulations were better than or comparable to ERAInterim reanalysis for snow depth and winter surface temperature at regional scales, but slightly worse when simulating total column soil moisture. The root-mean-square differences of H in CAMS-CSM were all greater than those from the ERA-Interim reanalysis, but less than or comparable to those from GLDAS. The spatial correlations for H in CAMS-CSM were the lowest in nearly all regions, except for North America. CAMS-CSM LE produced the lowest bias in Siberia, North America, and South America, but with the lowest spatial correlation coefficients. Therefore, there are still scopes for improving H and LE simulations in CAMS-CSM, particularly for LE.     

Effects of the soil heat flux estimates on surface energy balance closure over a semi-arid grassland

Soil heat flux is important for surface energy balance (SEB), and inaccurate estimation of soil heat flux often leads to surface energy imbalance. In this paper, by using observations of surface radiation fluxes and soil temperature gradients at a semi-arid grassland in Xilingguole, Inner Mongolia, China from June to September 2008, the characters of the SEB for the semi-arid grassland were analyzed. Firstly, monthly averaged diurnal variations of SEB components were revealed. A 30-min forward phase displacement of soil heat flux (G) observed by a fluxplate at the depth of 5-cm below the soil surface was conducted and its effect on the SEB was studied. Secondly, the surface soil heat flux (G _s) was computed by using harmonic analysis and the effect of the soil heat storage between the surface and the fluxplate on the SEB was examined. The results show that with the 30-min forward phase displacement of observed G, the slope of the ordinary linear regression (OLR) of turbulent fluxes (H+LE) against available energy (R _n-G) increased from 0.835 to 0.842, i.e., the closure ratio of SEB increased by 0.7%, yet energy imclosure of 15.8% still existed in the SEB. When G _s, instead of G was used in the SEB equation, the slope of corresponding OLR of (H+LE) against (R _n-G _s) reached 0.979, thereby the imclosure ratio of SEB was reduced to only 2.1%.     

Using MODIS and AVHRR data to determine regional surface heating field and heat flux distributions over the heterogeneous landscape of the Tibetan Plateau

In this study, a parameterization methodology based on Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and in situ data is proposed and tested for deriving the regional surface heating field, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux over a heterogeneous landscape. In this case study, this method is applied to the whole Tibetan Plateau (TP) area. Four sets of AVHRR data and four sets of MODIS data (collected on 17 January 2003, 14 April 2003, 23 July 2003, and 16 October 2003) were used in this study to make comparisons between winter, spring, summer, and autumn values. The satellite-derived results were also validated using the “ground truth” as measured in the stations of CAMP/Tibet (Coordinated Enhanced Observing Period (CEOP) and Asia–Australia Monsoon Project on the Tibetan Plateau). The results show that the surface heating field, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux in the four seasons across the TP are in close accordance with its land surface status. These parameters range widely due to the strongly contrasting surface features found within the TP region. Also, the estimated surface heating field, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux all agree with the ground truth data, and usually, the absolute percentage difference between the two sets of data is less than 10 % at the validation stations. The AVHRR results were also in agreement with the MODIS data, with the latter usually displaying a higher level of accuracy. We have thus concluded that the proposed method was successful in retrieving surface heating field, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux values using AVHRR, MODIS, and in situ data over the heterogeneous land surface of the TP. Shortcomings and possible further improvements in the method are also discussed.     

内蒙古奈曼麦田和沙丘微气象特性研究

本文分析了内蒙古奈曼旗尧勒甸子村麦田冠层上方和流动沙丘的微气象特性，结果表明：（１）麦田和沙丘的反射率分别为２１％和３４％；（２）麦田白天约有６０％的净辐用于潜热交换，夜里净辐的大部分来自土壤热交换（３５％）和潜热交换（４１％）；沙丘白天的４８％的净辐射用于土壤热交换，夜里有５２％的净辐射由土壤热交换补给。（３）波文比在麦田和沙丘都是早晨和夜里大，白天小，（４）白天麦田上方的水汽压低于近麦层的，夜