山东黄县弧形断裂带断层泥铁元素化学种分布特征及其地震地质意义

本文利用德国Wissel公司生产的新型穆斯堡尔谱仪(Bench-MB500)对山东龙口常庄子村北黄县弧形断裂断层剖面上的多种断层泥样品进行了穆斯堡尔谱测试分析,讨论了该断层剖面上铁元素地球化学分布特征及其地震地质意义。结果显示,该断裂中央部分比较年轻的断层泥相对富集para-Fe~(2+),而两侧较老的断层泥基本由para-Fe~(3+)组成;剖面断层泥样品中铁元素的地球化学特征与断层的活动演化历史密切相关,显示了断裂带内存在复杂的水岩相互作用。     

Microstructural features of fault gouges from Tianjing-shan-Xiangshan fault zone and their geological implications

Detailed observation of the microstructural features of 11 fault gouge and 3 fault breccia samples collected from Tianjingshan-Xiangshan fault zone has revealed that fault gouge can be classified into 3 types: flow banded granular gouge, foliated gouge and massive gouge. The determination of the shape preferred orientation (SPO) of survivor grains in fault gouges indicates that the foliated gouge displays a profound SPO inclined to the shear zone boundary, similar to theP-foliation; flow banded granular gouge displays a SPO parallel to the shear zone boundary, while massive fault gouge and fault breccia display a random SPO. All these fault gouges fall in different fields of shear rate ternary diagram.     

Internal structures and high-velocity frictional properties of a bedding-parallel carbonate fault at Xiaojiaqiao outcrop activated by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

This paper reports internal structures of a bedding-parallel fault in Permian limestone at Xiaojiaqiao outcrop that was moved by about 0.5 m during the 2008 M_W7.9 Wenchuan earthquake. The fault is located about 3 km to the south from the middle part of Yingxiu-Beichuan fault, a major fault in the Longmenshan fault system that was moved during the earthquake. The outcrop is also located at Anxian transfer zone between the northern and central segments of Yingxiu-Beichuan fault where fault system is complex. Thus the fault is an example of subsidiary faults activated by Wenchuan earthquake. The fault has a strike of 243° or N63°E and a dip of 38°NW and is nearly optimally oriented for thrust motion, in contrast to high-angle coseismic faults at most places. Surface outcrop and two shallow drilling studies reveal that the fault zone is several centimeters wide at most and that the coseismic slip zone during Wenchuan earthquake is about 1 mm thick. Fault zone contains foliated cataclasite, fault breccia, black gouge and yellowish gouge. Many clasts of foliated cataclasite and black gouge contained in fault breccia indicate multiple slip events along this fault. But fossils on both sides of fault do not indicate clear age difference and overall displacement along this fault should not be large. We also report results from high-velocity friction experiments conducted on yellowish gouge from the fault zone using a rotary shear low to high-velocity frictional testing apparatus. Dry experiments at normal stresses of 0.4 to 1.8 MPa and at slip rates of 0.08 to 1.35 m/s reveal dramatic slip weakening from the peak friction coefficient of around 0.6 to very low steady-state friction coefficient of 0.1-0.2. Slip weakening parameters of this carbonate fault zone are similar to those of clayey fault gouge from Yingxiu-Beichuan fault at Hongkou outcrop and from Pingxi fault zone. Our experimental result will provide a condition for triggering movement of subsidiary faults or off-fault damage during a large earthquake.     

Internal structures and high-velocity frictional properties of Longmenshan fault zone at Shenxigou activated during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

This paper reports internal structures of a wide fault zone at Shenxigou, Dujiangyan, Sichuan province, China, and high-velocity frictional properties of the fault gouge collected near the coseismic slip zone during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Vertical offset and horizontal displacement at the trench site were 2.8 m (NW side up) and 4.8 m (right-lateral), respectively. The fault zone formed in Triassic sandstone, siltstone, and shale about 500 m away from the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault, a major fault in the Longmenshan fault system. A trench survey across the coseismic fault, and observations of outcrops and drill cores down to a depth of 57 m revealed that the fault zone consists of fault gouge and fault breccia of about 0.5 and 250–300 m in widths, respectively, and that the fault strikes N62°E and dips 68° to NW. Quaternary conglomerates were recovered beneath the fault in the drilling, so that the fault moved at least 55 m along the coseismic slip zone, experiencing about 18 events of similar sizes. The fault core is composed of grayish gouge (GG) and blackish gouge (BG) with very complex slip-zone structures. BG contains low-crystalline graphite of about 30 %. High-velocity friction experiments were conducted at normal stresses of 0.6–2.1 MPa and slip rates of 0.1–2.1 m/s. Both GG and BG exhibit dramatic slip weakening at constant high slip rates that can be described as an exponential decay from peak friction coefficient μ _p to steady-state friction coefficient μ _ss over a slip-weakening distance D _c. Deformation of GG and BG is characterized by overlapped slip-zone structures and development of sharp slickenside surfaces, respectively. Comparison of our data with those reported for other outcrops indicates that the high-velocity frictional properties of the Longmenshan fault zones are quite uniform and the high-velocity weakening must have promoted dynamic rupture propagation during the Wenchuan earthquake.     

Slow-moving deformation pulses along tectonic faults

A model of slow-moving disturbances of deformation is proposed to interpret the observed propagations of earthquake foci and nonseismic creep. The analysis is based on the assumption that thin fault gouge participates in the viscous slip. Nonuniform deformation diffusses at the rate of ν = μw/2η for the gouge of viscosity η and thickness w that is enclosed by the elastic rocks of rigidity μ. A crack-like solution propagates uniformly, involving the discontinuity that bounds the faulted area by an unfractured part, or by another gouge with different viscosity. The unit of the propagation velocity of such cracks is also given by the above-defined ν. Comparing the expression of ν with the various field observations, most of which yield the propagation speeds of 10–10⁴ km/year, the effective viscosity of the gouge is estimated as 10¹¹–10¹⁴ poises. The nonseismic fault creep in central California is analysed, and a little higher value of acting stress is obtained than the result of Nason and Weertman (1973).     

Development of shear localization in simulated quartz gouge: Effect of cumulative slip and gouge particle size

Frictional sliding experiments were conducted on two types of simulated quartz gouge (with median particle diameters 5 m and 25 m, respectively) at confining pressures ranging from 50 MPa to 190 MPa in a conventional triaxial configuration. To investigate the operative micromechanical processes, deformation texture developed in the gouge layer was studied in samples which had accumulated different amounts of frictional slip and undergone different stability modes of sliding. The spatial patterning of shear localization was characterized by a quantitative measurement of the shear band density and orientation. Shear localization in the ultrafine quartz gouge initiated very early before the onset of frictional sliding. Various modes of shear localization were evident, but within the gouge zoneR ₁-shears were predominant. The density of shear localization increased with cumulative slip, whereas the angle subtended at the rock-gouge interface decreased. Destabilization of the sliding behavior in the ultrafine quartz gouge corresponded to the extension ofR ₁-shears and formation of boundaryY-shear segments, whereas stabilization with cumulative slip was related to the coalescence ofY-shear segments to form a throughgoing boundary shear. In the coarse quartz gouge, the sliding behavior was relatively stable, probably because shear localization was inhibited by distributed comminution. Two different models were formulated to analyze the stress field within the gouge zone, with fundamentally different predictions on the orientations of the principal stresses. If the rock-gouge interface is assumed to be bonded without any displacement discontinuity, then the maximum principal stress in the gouge zone is predicted to subtend an angle greater than 45° at the interface. If no assumption on displacement or strain continuity is made and if the gouge has yielded as a Coulomb material, then the maximum principal stress in the gouge zone is predicted to subtend an angle less than 45°. If the apparent friction coefficient increases with overall slip (i.e., slip-hardening), then the Riedel shear angle progressively decreases with increasing shear strain within the gouge layer, possibly attaining a zero value which corresponds to a boundaryY-shear. Our quantitative data on shear localization orientation are in reasonable agreement with this second model, which implies the coefficient of internal friction to be about 0.75 for the ultrafine quartz gouge and 0.8 for the coarse gouge. The wide range of orientations for Riedel shear localization observed in natural faults suggests that the orientations of principal stresses vary as much as in an experimental gouge zone.     

虹口八角庙-深溪沟炭质泥岩同震断层泥的X射线衍射分析结果

5.12汶川地震同震地表破裂带在虹口八角-深溪沟一带主要出露于三叠系须家河组的炭质泥岩中,同震断层泥在颜色、结构上与老断层泥和围岩类似。通过开挖探槽,系统采样,采用粉晶X射线衍射定量分析方法,研究了同震地表破裂带的围岩、断层角砾岩、老断层泥和新断层泥的矿物成分特征。同震断层泥的主要成分为石英和黏土矿物,含微量长石和白云石;断层泥的显著特征为高黏土矿物含量,从同震断层泥、老断层泥、角砾岩到围岩黏土矿物含量依次降低,黏土矿物以伊利石和伊蒙混层为主,含微量绿泥石和高岭石,矿物组成明显比地表破裂带北段同震断层泥简单。不同颜色的同震断层泥成分略有不同,黑色断层泥中伊利石含量明显高于白色断层泥;老断层泥中含有方解石和白云石,而同震断层泥不含方解石,只含微量白云石。同震断层泥中伊蒙混层高含量表明,在本次地震错动中有富含K的流体参与。     

海原断裂带老虎山段断层岩磁学研究及其构造意义

断层岩,尤其是断层泥的磁性异常近年来被研究人员广泛关注,但关于其磁性异常的形成原因尚没有统一的解释．海原断裂是青藏高原东北缘一条重要的走滑断裂,前期研究发现海原断裂带景泰段出露有数十米至上百米的断层岩,是理想的研究材料．本研究选取海原断裂带景泰段老虎山山前一个断层岩剖面作为研究对象,拟通过测量断层岩的磁化率（χ）、非磁滞剩磁（ARM）、饱和等温剩磁（SIRM）、等温剩磁（IRM）以及磁化率随温度变化曲线（χ-T曲线）等磁学参数并结合粒度、碳含量、X射线衍射（XRD）等分析方法来探究海原断裂带老虎山段不同颜色断层岩的磁性特征及其形成机制．磁学研究显示黑色、红色及杂色断层泥相较于围岩和破碎带显示了低磁性,尤其是黑色断层泥,其磁化率值均小于10×10~(-8 )m~3·kg~(-1)．碳含量及矿物相分析结果指示黑色断层泥与断裂带附近石炭系煤层具有相似的矿物相组成,结合相似的χ-T曲线推断石炭系煤层为黑色断层泥的母岩．石炭系煤层经断层活动卷入断层,在断层强烈剪切摩擦作用下不断细化,形成伊利石等黏土矿物,并促使一部分顺磁性含铁硅酸盐矿物或其他含铁矿物发生化学变化形成亚铁磁性矿物,使得黑色断层泥的磁化率较其母岩石炭系煤层有一定升高．通过黑色断层泥的铁磁性磁化率结合χ-T曲线计算获得断层泥所经历的最高温度约为420℃,不超过450℃．老虎山段厚层碳质断层泥的存在为该地区发现的浅层蠕滑现象提供了一种解释．     

A note on the stress-dilatancy relation for simulated fault gouge

Theoretical constraints on the stress-dilation relation for a deforming Coulomb material requirev ifC=0 andv sin^-1( _m / _m ) always, wherev is the dilation angle, is the friction angle,C is cohesion, _m is the maximum shear stress, and _m is the mean effective stress. Recent laboratory measurements of friction and dilatancy of simulated fault gouge show that small amplitude shear-load cycling causes compaction and consolidation. Comparison of the data with theory indicates that such load cycling produces: (1) increased coefficient of friction (or friction angle), (2) increased cohesion, and (3) increased dilatancy rate (or dilation angle). Under certain conditions of load cycling without significant plastic shear strain accumulation ( ^p <0.005) we find thatv exceeds both and, in contrast to theory, sin^-1( _m / _m ). This result is interpreted in terms of enhanced cohesion and overconsolidation, which lead to residual stresses within the gouge. An analogy is drawn between these special loading conditions and those extant on natural faults. In particular, our results imply that jostling and minor stress variations associated with microearthquakes may produce strengthening of fault gouge and changes in the fault zone's stress-dilatancy relation. Hence, compaction associated with microseismicity may lead to subsequent dilation of fault gouge, even for faults with large displacement rates and large net offsets (e.g., San Andreas). In regions where such dilation persists over sufficient displacements (on the order of the critical slip distance for seismic faulting) it may tend to inhibit unstable slip.     

Deformation mechanisms and fluid behavior in a shallow, brittle fault zone during coseismic and interseismic periods: Results from drill core penetrating the Nojima Fault, Japan

Abstract This paper describes the results of petrographical and meso- to microstructural observations of brittle fault rocks in cores obtained by drilling through the Nojima Fault at a drilling depth of 389.52 m. The zonation of deformation and alteration in the central zone of the fault is clearly seen in cores of granite from the hanging wall, in the following order: (i) host rock, which is characterized by some intragranular microcracks and in situ alteration of mafic minerals and feldspars; (ii) weakly deformed and altered rocks, which are characterized by transgranular cracks and the dissolution of mafic minerals, and by the precipitation of zeolites and iron hydroxide materials; (iii) random fabric fault breccia, which is characterized by fragmentation, by anastomosing networks of transgranular cracks, and by the precipitation of zeolites and iron hydroxide materials; and (iv) fault gouge, which is characterized by the precipitation of smectite and localized cataclastic flow. This zonation implies that the fault has been weakened gradually by fluid-related fracturing over time. In the footwall, a gouge layer measuring only 15 mm thick is present just below the surface of the Nojima Fault. These observations are the basis for a model of fluid behavior along the Nojima Fault. The model invokes the percolation of meteoric fluids through cracks in the hanging wall fault zone during interseismic periods, resulting in chemical reactions in the fault gouge layer to form smectite. The low permeability clay-rich gouge layer sealed the footwall. The fault gouge was brecciated during coseismic or postseismic periods, breaking the seal and allowing fluids to readily flow into the footwall, thus causing a slight alteration. Chemical reactions between fluids and the fault breccia and gouge generated new fault gouge, which resealed the footwall, resulting in a low fluid condition in the footwall during interseismic periods.     

Dating deep? Luminescence studies of fault gouge from the San Andreas Fault zone 2.6 km beneath Earth's surface

This study aims to assess whether luminescence emission from fault gouge samples from the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) can be used to determine the age distribution of distinct deformation microstructures. Such age determination could help constrain some of the proposed micromechanical models for shear localization in fault gouge, in addition to providing more accurate time constraint on the seismic cycle itself. The mechanism by which previously trapped charge is reset in minerals in fault gouge is thought to be a combination of frictional heating and mechanical deformation, and these processes may be localized to grain surfaces. An added dating complexity specific to deep samples is the high ambient temperature conditions, which act as a barrier to charge storage in lower energy trapping sites. In this work luminescence experiments are being conducted on minerals from whole-rock samples of intact fault gouge from the SAFOD Phase III core. Initial studies indicate (i) the thermal and radiation history of the mineral lattice can be assessed with TL, (ii) trap resetting is evident in both TL and IRSL data, (iii) a small charge-trapping window between drill hole ambient temperature of ∼112 °C and higher energy lattice excitation via rupture events is evident in TL data from ∼300 to 400 °C, and we tentatively link the source of IRSL to TL within this 300–400 °C region, (iv) IRSL data have low natural intensity but good luminescence characteristics, and (v) SAR IRSL D_e data have high over-dispersion but demonstrate ages ranging from decades to centuries may be measured.     

现场大尺度摩擦实验中观测到的断层泥中的塑性变形波

本文介绍了在断层区的岩体中进行的现场大尺度摩擦实验。实验的目的是探索地壳中变形波的存在。实验结果表明,在加载时断层泥屈服时间不一致,加载一端的断层泥先屈服,然后屈服范围逐步扩大,此过程相应于塑性变形波在断层泥中的传播。实验测得试件中塑性变形波波速约为2—3 cm/min,实际相当于10—16km/year。     

断层泥的再生显微结构特征及其地震地质意义

三轴剪切摩擦实验后的断层泥与天然断层泥的再生显微结构特征研究表明，断层泥的显微结构特征与断层滑动方式之间有一定的关系，稳滑使断层泥变形均匀，产生低角度剪切（＜１４°）、布丁构造和颗粒碎裂流动。粘滑使断层泥局部发生强烈变形、高角度剪切（＞１４°）和碎粒出现随机裂纹等。断层泥的再生显微结构特征可用作鉴别古地震的存在     

Internal structure of Longmenshan fault zone at Hongkou outcrop,Sichuan, China,that caused the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

This paper reports the internal structures of the Beichuan fault zone of Longmenshan fault system that caused the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, at an outcrop in Hongkou, Sichuan province, China. Present work is a part of comprehensive project of Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, trying to understand deformation processes in Longmenshan fault zones and eventually to reproduce Wenchuan earthquake by modeling based on measured mechanical and transport properties. Outcrop studies could be integrated with those performed on samples recovered from fault zone drilling, during the Wenchuan Earthquake Fault Scientific Drilling (WFSD) Project, to understand along-fault and depth variation of fault zone properties. The hanging wall side of the fault zone consists of weakly-foliated, clayey fault gouge of about 1 m in width and of several fault breccia zones of 30–40 m in total width. We could not find any pseudotachylite at this outcrop. Displacement during the Wenchuan earthquake is highly localized within the fault gouge layer along narrower slipping-zones of about 10 to 20 mm in width. This is an important constraint for analyzing thermal pressurization, an important dynamic weakening mechanism of faults. Overlapping patterns of striations on slickenside surface suggest that seismic slip at a given time occurred in even narrower zone of a few to several millimeters, so that localization of deformation must have occurred within a slipping zone during coseismic fault motion. Fault breccia zones are bounded by thin black gouge layers containing amorphous carbon. Fault gouge contains illite and chlorite minerals, but not smectite. Clayey fault gouge next to coseismic slipping zone also contains amorphous carbon and small amounts of graphite. The structural observations and mineralogical data obtained from outcrop exposures of the fault zone of the Wenchuan earthquake can be compared with those obtained from the WFSD-1 and WFSD-2 boreholes, which have been drilled very close to the Hongkou outcrop. The presence of carbon and graphite, observed next to the slipping-zone, may affect the mechanical properties of the fault and also provide useful information about coseismic chemical changes.     

海原活动断裂中断层泥的特征、成因及其对断层滑动性能的影响

本文对海原断裂的断层泥的各类特征进行了系统的研究,分析了断层泥带内部的小型断裂类型,探讨了断层泥组分的有机地球化学意义。通过对比,确立了石英碎屑表面机械作用成因的电子显微构造特征组合为活断层的判别标志。本文将石英碎屑表面电子显微溶蚀构造分为五类,据此分析了断层活动时期和状态。研究中还发现了断层泥带内部电子显微结构类型,进而分析了断层活动与微结构、粒度分布间的关系。最后还讨论了断层泥形成演化过程以及断层泥对全新世以来断层滑动性能影响及其与地震活动的关系     

Fractal research of fault gouge

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Implications of Coulomb plasticity for the velocity dependence of experimental faults

Simulated fault gouges often deform more stably than initially bare surfaces of the same composition. It is important to understand why the sliding stability is enhanced because the presence of gouge on natural faults may have the same effect as seen in experiments, and thus explain the absence of earthquakes at shallow depths. Gouge stabilization in experiments has been attributed to positive contributions to velocity dependence within gouge layers from either dilation (Marone et al., 1990) or grain fracture (Biegel et al., 1989). In this study we test the hypothesis that some aspects of gouge and initially bare surface velocity dependence are identical by measuring the time-dependent constitutive parameterb. An important result follows however from stress analysis: if both sample configurations are frictional in the Mohr-Coulomb sense, each configuration is required to deform on planes of distinctly different orientation. The measured strength and velocity dependence will reflect this geometric difference. Our observed values ofb for simulated granite and quartz gouge are two to two and a half times smaller thanb for initially bare surfaces. This difference is completely accounted for if gouge is represented as a cohesionless-Coulomb plastic material. The analysis demonstrates the following points: 1) gouge deformation is fully consistent with Coulomb plasticity, 2) observed gouge velocity dependence is a function of observed strength and 3) the constitutive parameterb is the same for both bare surfaces and gouge. Furthermore, the results suggest that there is no time-dependent strengthening associated with stabilizing effects in gouge. These observations provide a framework for understanding how slip on initially bare surfaces and gouge deformation are related.     

Simulation of the Influence of Rate- and State-dependent Friction on the Macroscopic Behavior of Complex Fault Zones with the Lattice Solid Model

-- In order to understand the earthquake nucleation process, we need to understand the effective frictional behavior of faults with complex geometry and fault gouge zones. One important aspect of this is the interaction between the friction law governing the behavior of the fault on the microscopic level and the resulting macroscopic behavior of the fault zone. Numerical simulations offer a possibility to investigate the behavior of faults on many different scales and thus provide a means to gain insight into fault zone dynamics on scales which are not accessible to laboratory experiments. Numerical experiments have been performed to investigate the influence of the geometric configuration of faults with a rate- and state-dependent friction at the particle contacts on the effective frictional behavior of these faults. The numerical experiments are designed to be similar to laboratory experiments by Dieterich and Kilgore (1994) in which a slide-hold-slide cycle was performed between two blocks of material and the resulting peak friction was plotted vs. holding time. Simulations with a flat fault without a fault gouge have been performed to verify the implementation. These have shown close agreement with comparable laboratory experiments. The simulations performed with a fault containing fault gouge have demonstrated a strong dependence of the critical slip distance D_c on the roughness of the fault surfaces and are in qualitative agreement with laboratory experiments.     

沂沭断裂带及其附近断裂的断层泥分形特征及其地震地质意义

利用岩石碎裂数目的分形理论，分析，计算了沂沭断裂带及其西侧北西向断裂的断层泥粒度成分的分维值，讨论了断层泥粒度成分分维的地震地质意义，研究结果表明，沂沭断裂带内的断裂活动的强度大于北西向断裂活动强度；Ｆ２是沂沭断裂带中活动最强的一条断裂，断层泥粒度成分分维值可作为表征断裂活动时代，破裂形式和断层泥形成斫代等的参量；分维值还与断层泥的母岩，厚度，粘土矿物含量和所处的断裂部位等相关。