Formation mechanism of the Weddell Sea Polynya and the impact on the global abyssal ocean

An experiment using a global ocean–ice model with an interannual forcing data set was conducted to understand the variability in the Southern Ocean. A winter-persisting polynya in the Weddell Sea (the Weddell Polynya, WP) was simulated. The process of WP breaking out after no-WP years was explored using the successive WPs found in the late 1950s. The results suggested that the anomalously warm deep water, saline surface layer, and a cyclonic wind stress over the Maud polynya region in early winter are essential for the surface layer to be dense enough to trigger deep convections which maintain a winter-persisting polynya; also, the reanalyzed surface air temperature (SAT) over the observed polynya region is too high for an ocean–ice model’s bulk formula to yield sufficient upward heat fluxes to induce WP formation. Therefore the Weddell Polynya, a series of WPs observed from satellite in the mid-1970s, is reproduced by replacing the SAT with a climatological one. Subsequent to the successive WP events, density anomalies excited in the Weddell Sea propagate northward in the Atlantic deep basins. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is enhanced through the increased meridional density gradient. The enhanced ACC and its meandering over the abyssal ridges excite buoyancy anomalies near the bottom at the southwestern end of the South Pacific basin. The buoyancy signals propagate northward and eventually arrive in the northern North Pacific.     

The sources of Antarctic bottom water in a global ice–ocean model

Two mechanisms contribute to the formation of Antarctic bottom water (AABW). The first, and probably the most important, is initiated by the brine released on the Antarctic continental shelf during ice formation which is responsible for an increase in salinity. After mixing with ambient water at the shelf break, this salty and dense water sinks along the shelf slope and invades the deepest part of the global ocean. For the second one, the increase of surface water density is due to strong cooling at the ocean–atmosphere interface, together with a contribution from brine release. This induces deep convection and the renewal of deep waters. The relative importance of these two mechanisms is investigated in a global coupled ice–ocean model. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) concentrations simulated by the model compare favourably with observations, suggesting a reasonable deep water ventilation in the Southern Ocean, except close to Antarctica where concentrations are too high. Two artificial passive tracers released at surface on the Antarctic continental shelf and in the open-ocean allow to show clearly that the two mechanisms contribute significantly to the renewal of AABW in the model. This indicates that open-ocean convection is overestimated in our simulation. Additional experiments show that the amount of AABW production due to the export of dense shelf waters is quite sensitive to the parameterisation of the effect of downsloping and meso-scale eddies. Nevertheless, shelf waters always contribute significantly to deep water renewal. Besides, increasing the P.R. Gent, J.C. McWilliams [Journal of Physical Oceanography 20 (1990) 150–155] thickness diffusion can nearly suppress the AABW formation by open-ocean convection.     

Temporal variations and trends of CFC11 and CFC12 surface-water saturations in Antarctic marginal seas: Results of a regional ocean circulation model

The knowledge of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC11, CFC12) concentrations in ocean surface waters is a prerequisite for deriving formation rates of, and water mass ages in, deep and bottom waters on the basis of CFC data. In the Antarctic coastal region, surface-layer data are sparse in time and space, primarily due to the limited accessibility of the region. To help filling this gap, we carried out CFC simulations using a regional ocean general circulation model (OGCM) for the Southern Ocean, which includes the ocean–ice shelf interaction. The simulated surface layer saturations, i.e. the actual surface concentrations relative to solubility-equilibrium values, are verified against available observations. The CFC surface saturations driven by concentration gradients between atmosphere and ocean are controlled mainly by the sea ice cover, sea surface temperature, and salinity. However, no uniform explanation exists for the controlling mechanisms. Here, we present simulated long-term trends and seasonal variations of surface-layer saturation at Southern Ocean deep and bottom water formation sites and other key regions, and we discuss differences between these regions. The amplitudes of the seasonal saturation cycle vary from 22% to 66% and their long-term trends range from 0.1%/year to 0.9%/year. The seasonal surface saturation maximum lags the ice cover minimum by two months. By utilizing observed bottle data the full seasonal CFC saturation cycle can be determined offering the possibility to predict long-term trends in the future. We show that ignoring the trends and using instead the saturations actually observed can lead to systematic errors in deduced inventory-based formation rates by up to 10% and suggest an erroneous decline with time.     

Evaluation of ocean model ventilation with CFC-11: comparison of 13 global ocean models

We compared the 13 models participating in the Ocean Carbon Model Intercomparison Project (OCMIP) with regards to their skill in matching observed distributions of CFC-11. This analysis characterizes the abilities of these models to ventilate the ocean on timescales relevant for anthropogenic CO₂ uptake. We found a large range in the modeled global inventory (±30%), mainly due to differences in ventilation from the high latitudes. In the Southern Ocean, models differ particularly in the longitudinal distribution of the CFC uptake in the intermediate water, whereas the latitudinal distribution is mainly controlled by the subgrid-scale parameterization. Models with isopycnal diffusion and eddy-induced velocity parameterization produce more realistic intermediate water ventilation. Deep and bottom water ventilation also varies substantially between the models. Models coupled to a sea-ice model systematically provide more realistic AABW formation source region; however these same models also largely overestimate AABW ventilation if no specific parameterization of brine rejection during sea-ice formation is included. In the North Pacific Ocean, all models exhibit a systematic large underestimation of the CFC uptake in the thermocline of the subtropical gyre, while no systematic difference toward the observations is found in the subpolar gyre. In the North Atlantic Ocean, the CFC uptake is globally underestimated in subsurface. In the deep ocean, all but the adjoint model, failed to produce the two recently ventilated branches observed in the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). Furthermore, simulated transport in the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) is too sluggish in all but the isopycnal model, where it is too rapid.     

Polynyas in a high‐resolution dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice model and their parameterization using flux models

This paper presents an analysis of the solutions for a steady state latent heat polynya generated by an applied wind stress acting over a semi‐enclosed channel using: (a) a dynamic–thermodynamic sea ice model, and (b) a steady state flux model. We examine what processes in the sea ice model are responsible for the maintenance of the polynya and how sensitive the results are to the choice of rheological parameters. We find that when the ice is driven onshore by an applied wind stress, a consolidated ice pack forms downwind of a zone of strong convergence in the ice velocities. The build‐up of internal stresses within the consolidated ice pack becomes a crucial factor in the formation of this zone and results in a distinct polynya edge. Furthermore, within the ice pack the across‐channel ice velocity varies with the across‐channel distance. It is demonstrated that provided this velocity is well represented, the steady state polynya flux model solutions are in close agreement with those of the sea ice model. Experiments with the sea ice model also show that the polynya shape and area are insensitive to (a) the sea ice rheology; (b) the imposition of either free‐ slip or no‐slip boundary conditions. These findings are used in the development of a simplified model of the consolidated ice pack dynamics, the output of which is then compared with the sea ice model results. Finally, we discuss the relevance of this study for the modelling of the North Water Polynya in northern Baffin Bay.     

High-resolution sea ice in long-term global ocean GCM integrations

The resolution of the sea-ice component of a coarse-resolution global ocean general circulation model (GCM) has been enhanced to about 22 km in the Southern Ocean. The ocean GCM is designed for long-term integrations suitable for investigations of the deep-ocean equilibrium response to changes in southern hemisphere high-latitude processes. The space and time scales of the high-resolution sea-ice component are commensurate with those of the resolution of satellite passive-microwave sea-ice data. This provides the opportunity for a rigorous evaluation of simulated sea-ice characteristics. It is found that the satellite-derived continuous high ice concentration of the interior winter ice pack can only be captured when vertical oceanic mixing is modified in a way that less local, intermittent convection occurs. Furthermore, the width and the variability of the coastal polynyas around the Antarctic continent and its ice shelves are best captured when some form of ice-shelf melting is accounted for. The width of the wintertime ice edge is reasonably reproduced, while its variability remains underestimated, closely following the coarse-grid pattern of the ocean model due to its high dependence on ocean temperature. Additional variability besides daily winds, e.g. in form of idealized tidal currents, improves the temporal and spatial ice-edge variability, while leads in the interior ice pack become more abundant, more in line with the fine-scale satellite-derived texture. The coast- or ice-shelf line is described on the fine grid based on satellite passive-microwave data. This method requires parts of a coarse coastal ocean grid cell to be covered by an inert layer of “fast ice” or “ice shelf”. Reasonable long-term global deep-ocean properties can only be achieved when these areas are not inert, i.e. are exposed to heat flux and ice growth, or when the vertical mixing parameterization allows for excessive open-ocean convection. The model area exposed to cold high-latitude atmospheric conditions thus being most decisive for a realistic representation of the long-term deep-ocean properties, suggests that high-latitude coastlines are definitely in need of being represented at high resolution, including ice sheets and their effects on the heat and freshwater flux for the ocean.     

Ocean circulation and sea ice distribution in a finite element global sea ice–ocean model

A newly developed global Finite Element Sea Ice–Ocean Model (FESOM) is presented. The ocean component is based on the Finite Element model of the North Atlantic (FENA) but has been substantially updated and extended. In addition to a faster realization of the numerical code, state-of-the-art parameterizations of subgrid-scale processes have been implemented. A Redi/GM scheme is employed to parameterize the effects of mesoscale eddies on lateral tracer distribution. Vertical mixing and convection are parameterized as a function of the Richardson number and the Monin–Obukhov length. A finite element dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice–model has been developed and coupled to the ocean component. Sea ice thermodynamics have been derived from the standard AWI sea ice model featuring a prognostic snow layer but neglecting internal heat storage. The dynamic part offers the viscous-plastic and elastic-viscous-plastic rheologies. All model components are discretized on a triangular/tetrahedral grid with a continuous, conforming representation of model variables. The coupled model is run in a global configuration and forced with NCEP daily atmospheric reanalysis data for 1948–2007. Results are analysed with a slight focus on the Southern Hemisphere. Many aspects of sea ice distribution and hydrography are found to be in good agreement with observations. As in most coarse-scale models, Gulf Stream transport is underestimated, but transports of the Kuroshio and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current appear realistic. The seasonal cycles of Arctic and Antarctic sea ice extents and Antarctic sea ice thickness are well captured; long- and short-term variability of ice coverage is found to be reproduced realistically in both hemispheres. The coupled model is now ready to be used in a wide range of applications.     

On the parameterisation of oceanic sensible heat loss to the atmosphere and to ice in an ice-covered mixed layer in winter

In high-latitude oceans with seasonal ice cover, the ice and the low-salinity mixed layer form an interacting barrier for the heat flux from the ocean to the atmosphere. The presence of a less dense surface layer allows ice to form, and the ice cover reduces the heat loss to the atmosphere. The ice formation weakens the stability at the base of the mixed layer, leading to stronger entrainment and larger heat flux from below. This heat transport retards, and perhaps stops, the growth of the ice cover. As much heat is then entrained from below as is lost to the atmosphere. This heat loss further reduces the stability, and unless a net ice melt occurs, the mixed layer convects. Two possibilities exist: (1) A net ice melt, sufficient to retain the stability, will always occur and convection will not take place until all ice is removed. The deep convection will then be thermal, deepening the mixed layer. (2) The ice remains until the stability at the base of the mixed layer disappears. The mixed layer then convects, through haline convection, into the deep ocean. Warm water rises towards the surface and the ice starts to melt, and a new mixed layer is reformed. The present work discusses the interactions between ice cover and entrainment during winter, when heat loss to the atmosphere is present. One crucial hypothesis is introduced: “When ice is present and the ocean loses sensible heat to the atmosphere and to ice melt, the buoyancy input at the sea surface due to ice melt is at a minimum”. Using a one-dimensional energy-balance model, applied to the artificial situation, where ice melts directly on warmer water, it is found that this corresponds to a constant fraction of the heat loss going to ice melt. It is postulated that this partitioning holds for the ice cover and the mixed layer in the high-latitude ocean. When a constant fraction of heat goes to ice melt, at least one deep convection event occurs, before the ice cover can be removed by heat entrained from below. After one or several convection events the ice normally disappears and a deep-reaching thermal convection is established. Conditions appropriate for the Weddell Sea and the Greenland Sea are examined and compared with field observations. With realistic initial conditions no convection occurs in the warm regime of the Weddell Sea. A balance between entrained heat and atmospheric heat loss is established and the ice cover remains throughout the winter. At Maud Rise convection may occur, but late in winter and normally no polynya can form before the summer ice melt. In the central Greenland Sea the mixed layer generally convects early in winter and the ice is removed by melting from below as early as February or March. This is in agreement with existing observations.     

Circumpolar connections between Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba Dana) populations: Investigating the roles of ocean and sea ice transport

Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba Dana, has a heterogeneous circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean. Krill have a close association with sea ice which provides access to a critical food source and shelter, particularly in the early life stages. Advective modelling of transport pathways of krill have until now been on regional scales and have not taken explicit account of sea ice. Here we present Lagrangian modelling studies at the circumpolar scale that include interaction with sea ice. The advection scheme uses ocean velocity output from the Ocean Circulation and Climate Advanced Modelling (OCCAM) project model together with satellite-derived sea ice motion vectors to examine the potential roles of the ocean and sea ice in maintaining the observed circumpolar krill distribution. We show that the Antarctic Coastal Current is likely to be important in generating the large-scale distribution and that sea ice motion can substantially modify the ocean transport pathways, enhancing retention or dispersal depending upon location. Within the major krill region of the Scotia Sea, the effect of temporal variability in both the ocean and sea ice velocity fields is examined. Variability in sea ice motion increases variability of influx to South Georgia, at times concentrating the influx into pulses of arrival. This variability has implications for the ecosystem around the island. The inclusion of sea ice motion leads to the identification of source regions for the South Georgia krill populations additional to those identified when only ocean motion is considered. This study indicates that the circumpolar oceanic circulation and interaction with sea ice is important in determining the large-scale distribution of krill and its associated variability.     

Eddy mass transport for the Southern Ocean in an eddy-permitting global ocean model

The eddy-induced mass transport is diagnosed for the Southern Ocean in an eddy-permitting global ocean model (OCCAM). The focus is on the transport by transient eddies in the deep ocean. The transport streamfunction is calculated in four different combinations of coordinate system. Depending on the coordinate system employed, the strength of transient eddy transport varies from 6 Sv meridional transport in latitude-density coordinates to 20 Sv across-streamline transport in streamline-depth coordinates. It is shown that transient eddies as well as standing eddies are necessary for cancelling the Deacon cell.In the Antarctic bottom water density layer, the major contribution of the transient eddies towards net equatorward transport occurs (a) as a strong transport over the narrow Drake Passage and (b) as a weaker but systematic transport over a broader region in the southeast Pacific where the Antarctic circumpolar current breaks up into multiple jets. In contrast, in the North Atlantic deep water density layer the net poleward eddy transport is spread out almost everywhere. This suggests that attention to eddies should not be restricted to places where the eddy transport has large magnitude.     

Transient sea-ice polynya forced by oceanic flow variability

In the Weddell Sea during the winters of 1974–1976 a significant opening in the sea-ice cover occurred in the vicinity of a large bathymetric feature — the Maud Rise seamount. The event is commonly referred to as the Weddell Polynya. Aside from such a large-scale, relatively persistent polynya in the Weddell Sea, transient, small-scale polynya can also appear in the sea-ice cover at various times throughout the winter and at various locations with respect to the Maud Rise. The underlying causes for the occurrence of such transient polynya have not been unambiguously identified. We hypothesize that variations in the mean ocean currents are one major contributor to such variability in the sea-ice cover. Analysis of the sea-ice equations with certain idealized patterns of ocean currents serving as forcing is shown to lead to Ekman transports of sea ice favorable to the initiation of transient polynya. Aside from the actual spatial pattern of the idealized ocean currents, many other factors need also be taken into account when looking at such transient polynya. Two other such factors discussed are variations in the sea-ice thickness field and the treatment of the sea-ice rheology. Simulations of a sea-ice model coupled to a dynamical ocean model show that the interaction of (dynamical) oceanic currents with large-scale topographic features, such as the Maud Rise, does lead to the formation of transient polynya, again through Ekman transport effects. This occurs because the seamount has a dynamic impact on the three-dimensional oceanic flow field all the way up through the water column, and hence on the near surface ocean currents that are in physical contact with the sea ice. Further simulations of a sea-ice model coupled to a dynamic ocean model and forced with atmospheric buoyancy fluxes show that transient polynya can be enhanced when atmospheric cooling provides a positive feedback mechanism allowing preferential open-ocean convection to occur. The convection, which takes hold at sites where transient polynya have been initiated by sea-ice–ocean stress interaction, has an enhancing effect arising from the convective access to warmer, deeper waters. To investigate all of these effects in a hierarchical manner we use a primitive equation coupled sea-ice–ocean numerical model configured in a periodic channel domain with specified atmospheric conditions. We show that oceanic flow variability can account for temporal variability in small-scale, transient polynya and thus point to a plausible mechanism for the initiation of large-scale, sustained polynya such as the Weddell Polynya event of the mid 1970s.     

Observed and modelled sea‐ice drift response to wind forcing in the northern Baltic Sea

The wind dependence of sea‐ice motion was studied on the basis of ice velocity and wind observations, and weather model output. The study area was a transition zone between open water and the ice‐covered ocean in the northern Baltic Sea. In the centre of the basin the sea‐ice motion was highly wind‐dependent and the linear relationship between the wind and the drift velocities explained 80% of the drift's variance. On the contrary, the wind‐drift dependence was low near the coast. The wind‐drift coherence was significant over a broader frequency range in the central part of the basin than for the coastal drift. The ice motion was simulated by a numerical model forced with five types of wind stress and with two types of current data, and the outcome was compared with the observed buoy drift. The wind and the wind‐induced surface current were the main factors driving the ice in the basin's centre, while internal ice stresses were of importance in the shear zone near the fast ice edge. The best wind forcing was achieved by applying a method dependent on atmospheric stability and ice conditions. The average air–ice drag coefficient was 1.4×10⁻³ with the standard deviation of 0.2×10⁻³. The improvement brought about by using an accurate wind stress was comparable with that achieved by raising the model grid resolution from 18 km to 5 km.     

21世纪格陵兰冰川融化速率对海平面变化的影响

本文利用大洋环流模式POP研究RCP4.5情景下21世纪格陵兰冰川不同的融化速率对全球及区域海平面变化的影响。结果显示:当格陵兰冰川的融化速率以每年1%增加时,全球大部分海域的动力和比容海平面变化基本不变,主要是由于格陵兰冰川在低速融化时并不会导致大西洋经向翻转流减弱。当格陵兰冰川的融化速率以每年3%和每年7%增加时,动力海平面在北大西洋副极地、大西洋热带、南大西洋副热带和北冰洋海域呈现出显著的上升趋势,这是因为格陵兰冰川快速融化导致大量的淡水输入附近海域,造成该上层海洋层化加强和深对流减弱,导致大西洋经向翻转流显著减弱;与此同时,热比容海平面在北冰洋、格陵兰岛南部海域和大西洋副热带海域显著下降,而在热带大西洋和湾流海域明显上升;此时盐比容海平面的变化与热比容海平面是反相的,这是由于大量的低温低盐水的输入,造成北大西洋副极地海域变冷变淡、大西洋经向翻转流和热盐环流显著减弱,引起了太平洋向北冰洋的热通量和淡水通量减少,导致了北冰洋海水变冷变淡,同时热带大西洋滞留了更多的高温高盐水,随着湾流被带到北大西洋,北大西洋副极地海域低温低盐的海水,被风生环流输运到副热带海域。     

Active and passive ocean regimes in a low‐order climate model

A low‐order climate model is studied which combines the Lorenz‐84 model for the atmosphere on a fast time scale and a box model for the ocean on a slow time scale. In this climate model, the ocean is forced strongly by the atmosphere. The feedback to the atmosphere is weak. The behaviour of the model is studied as a function of the feedback parameters. We find regions in parameter space with dominant atmospheric dynamics, i.e., a passive ocean, as well as regions with an active ocean, where the oceanic feedback is essential for the qualitative dynamics. The ocean is passive if the coupled system is fully chaotic. This is illustrated by comparing the Kaplan–Yorke dimension and the correlation dimension of the chaotic attractor to the values found in the uncoupled Lorenz‐84 model. The active ocean behaviour occurs at parameter values between fully chaotic and stable periodic motion. Here, intermittency is observed. By means of bifurcation analysis of periodic orbits, the intermittent behaviour, and the rôle played by the ocean model, is clarified. A comparison of power spectra in the active ocean regime and the passive ocean regime clearly shows an increase of energy in the low frequency modes of the atmospheric variables. The results are discussed in terms of itinerancy and quasi‐stationary states observed in realistic atmosphere and climate models.     

Some thoughts on the freezing and melting of sea ice and their effects on the ocean

The high-latitude freezing and melting cycle can variously result in haline convection, freshwater capping or freshwater injection into the interior ocean. An example of the latter process is a secondary salinity minimum near 800 m-depth within the Arctic Ocean that results from the transformation on the Barents Sea shelf of Atlantic water from the Norwegian Sea and its subsequent intrusion into the Arctic Ocean. About one-third of the freshening on the shelf of that initially saline water appears to result from ice melt, although the actual sea ice flux is small, only about 0.005 Sv. A curious feature of this process is that water distilled at the surface of the Arctic Ocean by freezing ends up at mid-depth in the same ocean. This is a consequence of the ice being exported southward onto the shelf, melted, and then entrained into the northward Barents Sea throughflow that subsequently sinks into the Arctic Ocean. Prolonged reduction in sea ice in the region and in the concomitant freshwater injection would likely result in a warmer and more saline interior Arctic Ocean below 800 m.     

中国南大洋水团、环流和海冰研究进展(1995-2002)

总结了1995年以来中国在南大洋物理海洋学研究和南极海冰研究中所取得的成果。普里兹湾海区是中国南大洋研究的重点区域，研究表明，在该海区存在显著的深层水涌升和陆架水北扩现象，某些年份深层水与陆架水混合后产生了较重的水体，但是尚未发现生成南极底层水的直接证据。在普里兹湾所处的印度洋区段，亚热带锋、亚南极锋和极锋表现出显著的时空变化，特别是不同年份的锋面位置存在较大的摆动。该海区的南极绕极流既是风生的，也受到密度场的影响。在凯尔盖朗海台的地形引导作用下，南极绕极流表现出显著的非纬向性特征。南极海冰除了显著的季节变化以外，也表现出长期变化的趋势。此变化与海洋、大气中的其它变化有一定的相关性，表现为两极海冰涛动、南方海洋涛动等多种变化模态，对我国气候也有一定的影响。     

Multidecadal climate variability in the subtropics/mid‐latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere oceans

Observations of multidecadal variability in sea surface temperature (SST), surface air temperature and winds over the Southern Hemisphere are presented and an ocean general circulation model applied towards investigating links between the SST variability and that of the overlying atmosphere. The results suggest that the dynamical effect of the wind stress anomalies is significant mainly in the neighbourhood of the western boundary currents and their outflows across the mid‐latitudes of each Southern Hemisphere basin (more so in the South Indian and South Atlantic than in the South Pacific Ocean) and in the equatorial upwelling zones. Over most of the subtropics to mid‐latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere oceans, changes in net surface heat flux (particularly in latent heat) appear to be more important for the SST variability than dynamical effects. Implications of these results for modelling and understanding low frequency climate variability in the Southern Hemisphere as well as possible links with mechanisms of decadal/interdecadal variability in the Northern Hemisphere are discussed.     

A comparison of two global ocean-ice coupled models with different horizontal resolutions

A global eddy-permitting ocean-ice coupled model with a horizontal resolution of 0.25 by 0.25 is established on the basis of Modular Ocean Model version 4 (MOM4) and Sea Ice Simulator (SIS). Simulation results are compared with those of an intermediate resolution ocean-ice coupled model with a horizontal resolution of about 1 by 1 . The results show that the simulated ocean temperature, ocean current and sea ice concentration from the eddy-permitting model are better than those from the intermediate resolution model. However, both the two models have the common problem of ocean general circulation models (OGCMs) that the majority of the simulated summer sea surface temperature (SST) is too warm while the majority of the simulated subsurface summer temperature is too cold. Further numerical experiments show that this problem can be alleviated by incorporating the non-breaking surface wave-induced vertical mixing into the vertical mixing scheme for both eddy-permitting and intermediate resolution models.     

利用卫星遥感和再分析数据刻画2017-2018年格陵兰北部罕见冰间湖事件

以90%海冰密集度为阈值，基于卫星遥感数据，2017-2018年冰季在格陵兰北部识别了两次冰间湖事件，分别出现在冬季和夏季。冬季的冰间湖事件从2018年2月20日持续至3月3日，夏季的事件从8月2日持续到9月5日。AMSR2被动微波的海冰密集度产品表明，冬季和夏季冰间湖事件对应的最低海冰密集度分别为72%和65%。两次冰间湖事件都与格陵兰北部东西气压梯度异常引起的南风加强有关，而气压梯度的异常则与对流层中部极涡的扰动有关。冬季冰间湖事件期间，相对暖和的气温和频繁出现的冰间湖，导致冬季海冰生长不持续，海冰热力增厚较小，这为夏季海冰发生破碎并形成冰间湖创造了条件。南风减弱和新冰生成是冬季冰间湖消失的主要原因。对于夏季的冰间湖，导致其消失的主要原因则是从北部输入的浮冰增加。Sentinel-1 合成孔径雷达产品相对AMSR2被动微波观测产品更加适合于应用到冰间湖事件伴随的新冰生长，这与前者具有更高的空间分辨率有关。格陵兰北部是北冰洋多年冰的聚集地，该区域被认为是北冰洋海冰的“避难所”。因此区域在2017-2018年出现罕见的冰间湖事件，对于整个北冰洋海冰的快速减少具有重要意义，也助于北冰洋海冰，尤其是多年冰的消退。     

The Max-Planck-Institute global ocean/sea ice model with orthogonal curvilinear coordinates

The Hamburg Ocean Primitive Equation model has undergone significant development in recent years. Most notable is the treatment of horizontal discretisation which has undergone transition from a staggered E-grid to an orthogonal curvilinear C-grid. The treatment of subgridscale mixing has been improved by the inclusion of a new formulation of bottom boundary layer (BBL) slope convection, an isopycnal diffusion scheme, and a Gent and McWilliams style eddy-induced mixing parameterisation. The model setup described here has a north pole over Greenland and a south pole on the coast of the Weddell Sea. This gives relatively high resolution in the sinking regions associated with the thermohaline circulation. Results are presented from a 450 year climatologically forced integration. The forcing is a product of the German Ocean Model Intercomparison Project and is derived from the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting reanalysis. The main emphasis is on the model’s representation of key quantities that are easily associated with the ocean’s role in the global climate system. The global and Atlantic northward poleward heat transports have peaks of 1.43 and 0.84 PW, at 18° and 21° N respectively. The Atlantic meridional overturning streamfunction has a peak of 15.7 Sv in the North Atlantic and an outflow of 11.9 Sv at 30° S. Comparison with a simulation excluding BBL shows that the scheme is responsible for up to a 25% increase in North Atlantic heat transport, with significant improvement of the depths of convection in the Greenland, Labrador and Irminger Seas. Despite the improvements, comparison with observations shows the heat transport still to be too weak. Other outstanding problems include an incorrect Gulf Stream pathway, a too strong Antarctic Circumpolar Current, and a too weak renewal of Antarctic Intermediate Water. Nevertheless, the model has been coupled to the atmospheric GCM ECHAM5 and run successfully for over 250 years without any surface flux corrections.