藏东南冰湖溃决泥石流灾害及其发展趋势

冰湖溃决泥石流是高山冰湖溃决洪水引起的突发性泥石流,是一种自然灾害现象.西藏冰湖溃决泥石流集中分布于东南部的雅鲁藏布江、波曲及朋曲流域等.冰湖溃决泥石流常形成灾害链对藏东南社会、经济危害严重.分析了气温和降水对冰湖溃决和及其所形成的泥石流的影响,认为冰湖的溃决大部分是由于异常气候条件造成的,冷湿的气候有利于冰川的积累,当气候转为湿热和干热或气温突然升高0.6～1.2 ℃时最易引起冰湖溃决泥石流.通过对西藏地区气候变化的研究,对未来50 a藏东南冰湖溃决泥石流的发展趋势作了预测探讨.一般来讲,气温升高,冰川融水的增加有个临界点,当过了临界点后其冰川融水将会减少,冰湖溃决可能性减少,冰湖溃决泥石流也将减少.也就是说,未来西藏东南部冰湖溃决泥石流的发展趋势,将呈倒"U"字型.冰湖溃决泥石流的发生更多地依赖于突发性的降雨增多.     

天山博格达峰地区的冰川泥石流

分布于高山冰川与积雪边缘、固体物质主要由新老冰碛和雪崩岩屑所补给、水源依赖于冰雪融水及冰湖溃决水的泥石流称为冰川泥石流。 博格达峰地区既是东天山现代冰川最集中和最发育的地区,也是现代冰川泥石流最活跃的地区之一。兹仅1981年考察所及,就其分布、成因、类型及活动特征等简述于后。     

新疆冰川、积雪对气候变化的响应(II):灾害效应

新疆地区冰川、积雪广泛分布,在其融水补给河川径流的同时,也常伴有冰川洪水、融雪洪水、冰湖突发洪水、冰川泥石流、冰雪崩和风吹雪等冰雪灾害发生,这些灾害对当地居民居住地以及重要国防干线的安全运营形成较大威胁.冰川、积雪变化直接影响到冰雪灾害发生的程度与影响范围,新疆的冰川洪水和冰湖突发洪水灾害主要发生在塔里木河流域的喀喇昆仑山、昆仑山以及天山南坡西部一带,融雪洪水灾害主要发生在新疆北部的阿勒泰地区、塔城地区和天山北坡一带,冰川泥石流、冰雪崩灾害主要发生在帕米尔高原、天山西段和西昆仑山地区,风吹雪主要在天山中、西段地区.随着全球气候变暖,尤其是新疆从1987年开始的气候由暖干向暖湿的转型,冰川退缩加剧,融水量增大,冰川洪水和冰川泥石流灾害随着冰川融水径流的增加而增多;而融雪洪水、雪崩和风吹雪随着气候变化引起的冬季积雪增加和气温升高,其灾害强度在增强;冰崩灾害随着气温升高引起的高山冰体崩解而呈增加趋势.在新疆地区,冰雪灾害主要表现为冰雪洪水,已观测到近十几年来在气候变化影响下冰雪洪水发生的频次和强度有增加的趋势,塔里木河流域的冰湖溃决洪水和冰川洪水及北疆春季的冰凌和融雪洪水已对当地的生命财产和社会经济发展带来巨大危害,新疆的水资源安全、灾害等问题日益凸显.预计未来,随着气候增温引起的冰雪融水径流的增加,相关的冰雪灾害增多,因而增加了冰雪灾害的危险程度,并可能形成若干新的灾害点.面对气候变化诱发的众多冰川、积雪灾害,目前还缺乏对灾害监测、预测预警方面的适应对策.因此,在全球气候变化不断加速的趋势下,冰雪灾害应引起有关方面的足够重视,加强气候变化对冰雪灾害的影响评估和适应性管理对策研究,使科学技术在减灾方面发挥主导作用.     

西藏嘉黎吉翁错冰湖溃决机制特征

正在全球气候变暖背景下,青藏高原及周边地区的冰川整体处于快速退缩状态,导致冰川的不稳定性增加,冰川灾害的风险程度加剧,如冰崩、冰川跃动、冰湖溃决洪水和冰川泥石流等灾害事件频发(邬光剑等,2019)。据不完全统计,自20世纪以来,西藏冰湖溃决灾害呈增加趋势,已有33个冰湖前后发生37次溃决,主要分布于海洋性和大陆性冰川的过渡带,以及帕隆藏布流域的海洋性冰川地带,溃决机制也呈多样化发展(刘建康等,2019)。     

藏东南冰湖溃决泥石流形成的气候因素与发展趋势

冰湖溃决泥石流是高山冰湖溃决洪水引起的突发性泥石流,是一种自然灾害现象,对藏东南社会、经济危害严重。文中根据实地调查及相关资料,分析了气温和降水对冰湖溃决和冰湖溃决泥石流的影响以及冰湖溃决泥石流年内和年际的形成规律,并认为冰湖的溃决往往是由于异常气候条件造成的,冷湿的气候环境有利于冰川的积累。当气候转为湿热或干热,特别是气候突变异常年代,最易引起冰湖溃决泥石流。受西藏气候变化的影响,未来40年藏东南冰湖溃决泥石流的发展趋势呈抛物线"∩"型。     

近15a喜玛拉雅山中段波曲流域冰川和冰湖变化

西藏聂拉木县波曲流域内分布有大量的冰川和冰湖,通过对2000/2001年度遥感数据解译并与1987年的数据对比,发现近15 a来该流域内的冰川面积、冰湖数量和面积等均发生了巨大的变化,结果表明:冰川总面积减小了20%,>0.020 km²的冰湖数量增加了11%,冰湖面积增加了47%.其中位于西夏邦马峰东侧的嘎龙错和扛西错最为典型,面积分别增加了104%和118%.2005年夏季野外考察对以上资料进行了核实.在全球气候变暖的趋势下,预计该流域内的冰川面积将进一步缩小,冰湖数量在小幅增加后将会出现大规模的冰湖溃决,导致严重的泥石流灾害.     

聂拉木县冲堆普2002年泥石流成因分析及防治对策

聂拉木县冲堆普于2002年5月23日和6月29日先后两次暴发了大规模泥石流灾害,导致下游的水电站、中尼公路、农牧业生产、通讯设施等遭受严重破坏,总共损失约750余万元,给地方社会经济造成了严重的影响.通过对上游的考察和气象资料分析,查清了灾害的形成原因是冲堆普上游冰川融水和嘉龙湖局部溃决所诱发.这是一种多因子共同作用的新型泥石流类型,不同于以往的冰川融水型泥石流和冰湖溃决型泥石流.针对泥石流的危害,提出了防治措施,包括软性措施和硬性措施.     

我国西藏地区冰湖溃决灾害综述

冰湖溃决是我国西藏地区典型的地质灾害类型之一,具有突发性强、规模大、破坏力强和危害范围广等特点,往往造成下游地区遭受惨重的生命财产损失。冰湖溃决成因特征是形成机制、早期识别和危险性评价等冰湖溃决研究的基础,受客观条件限制,我国西藏冰湖溃决的基础调查工作存在资料分散甚至缺失的局限性。为解决这个难题,通过资料收集、遥感解译和野外调查等技术手段,重新梳理了我国西藏地区的冰湖溃决事件及基本特征,共调查出33个冰湖37次溃决事件,其中2个为冰川阻塞湖（简称冰川湖）,划定了冰湖溃决高发地带的地理分布位置,分析出冰崩/冰滑坡、埋藏冰融化、冰川融水、强降水、泥石流和上游冰湖溃决洪水6种诱发原因,为我国西藏冰湖溃决研究提供基础调查成果和参考依据。     

川藏交通廊道林波段冰川泥石流发育动态演化分析及监测预警方案

川藏交通廊道沿线山高谷深,地层岩性多变,新构造运动活跃,气候恶劣复杂,导致滑坡、崩塌、泥石流、冰湖溃决洪水等灾害极其发育,对铁路施工及运营带来严重影响.林芝-波密段就是典型地质灾害高发区域,常年受到冰川泥石流的影响,是川藏交通廊道重大灾害防治的难点区段.虽然目前在单沟尺度上对冰川泥石流的形成条件、影响因素、物源性质取得了一定的认识,但对于川藏交通廊道沿线不同类型的冰川泥石流诱发因素、区域发展演化规律及灾变指标的研究还较为初步,尚未构建完善的监测预警体系.借助多源长时序遥感影像、气象监测数据,结合野外实地验证和历史数据分析发现:川藏交通廊道周边区域冰川泥石流沟谷共99条,主要分布于恰青冰川-易贡乡、加拉贝垒-南迦巴瓦峰和古乡沟-嘎隆寺冰川一带;过去40年冰川经历了复杂的流动速度变化,表现为较小高海拔悬冰川活动性增强,大型沟谷冰川活动性减弱;自1973年以来,研究区冰川泥石流呈现频率增高、规模增大的特征.此外,从冰川泥石流发育沟道比降来看,发生高陡地形的滑坡、冰-岩崩诱发的泥石流频率增加.未来,冰川持续退缩,促使冰川源区冰瀑消失,发育更大规模的悬冰川,会增加这类冰川泥石流的风险;冰川泥石流形成及演化过程具有明显的灾变指标,如悬冰川裂隙密度增加、冰川速度增强、冰湖面积快速增加等.因此,基于以上认识,建议针对不同类型的冰川泥石流地建立完善的监测预警指标,并提出了融合卫星、航空遥感平台,气象、水文地面监测平台,地震动监测平台的冰川泥石流“空-天-地”立体监测框架,针对不同类型冰川泥石流进行灾变信息监测与预警判识,为川藏交通廊道安全施工运营提供技术参考.      

冰川泥石流与冰湖溃决灾害研究

冰川泥石流与冰湖溃决灾害发育在高山冰川分布区的外围,其灾害影响可达很远的下游河谷地带。冰川灾害已经成为我国西部经济发展中的重要环境灾害。施雅风和谢自楚教授都十分重视冰川灾害及其防治的研究,并多次组织了重要的研究项目。 大量的研究课题首先来自交通、水利及能源等建设工程的防护问题。60年代初,我国川藏公路许多地段多次受到冰川泥石流袭击,为此,1964年第一次组织了冰川泥石流考察,并进行了系统的观测和试验研究(施雅风等,1964;杜榕桓等,1985)。随后,进行了1974—1975年喀喇昆仑山南坡洪扎河谷(中巴公路巴基斯坦境内)冰川泥     

西天山托木尔峰南麓大型山谷冰川冰舌区消融特征分析

基于对托木尔峰南麓托木尔型山谷冰川的野外考察和典型冰川的定位观测,对冰面被表碛广泛覆盖的所谓“托木尔型”冰川冰舌区表碛与冰面消融的关系进行了研究. 结果表明：表碛对冰面消融、冰川水文过程、冰川变化等均具有重要影响,当表碛厚度超过3 cm时,表碛对冰面消融就产生明显抑制作用,且随着厚度增加,冰面消融显明减弱. 科其喀尔冰川表面的观测表明,由末端向上,表碛厚度逐渐减薄. 受表碛影响,科其喀尔冰川区最大的消融量出现在海拔3 800~3 900 m之间、表碛物厚度小于10 cm的区域内;冰川消融强度由此向上随着海拔的升高而下降,向下随表碛厚度的增大而减弱. 冰面湖的发育是表碛覆盖冰川的又一主要特征,湖水对冰面的融蚀和快速排泄成为冰面产汇流的主要过程. 科其喀尔冰川研究表明,两三个冰面湖排泄形成的融蚀冰量就相当于冰川末端退缩造成的冰量损失. 因此,冰面湖等热喀斯特地形的形成、扩张融蚀、融穿排泄、形成湖区低地,这一周而复始的过程不仅是其主要消融方式之一,而且也强烈的影响着冰川水文及冰川变化. 托木尔峰南麓地区大型冰川变化主要以厚度减薄为主,而不是像大多数冰川显著的变化主要表现在末端和面积减少方面.     

雅鲁藏布江大拐弯入口段泥石流特征及应对措施

雅鲁藏布江大拐弯入口段活动的地质构造、特殊的地形与气候条件酿就了暴雨泥石流及冰川泥石流等地质灾害。近60a来,则隆弄冰川泥石流曾两度摧毁直白村;鲁霞-德阳段暴雨泥石流的洪积扇已经深入雅鲁藏布江中,该段河道处于半阻塞状态。两处地点的泥石流对上下游村庄、城镇及设施带来严重威胁。依据地貌调查及室内DEM定量分析,了解泥石流地质灾害的空间分布特征及其成因,对前人认为则隆弄冰川泥石流堰塞雅鲁藏布江造成上游回水成湖淹没米林、林芝等地的观点提出了新的看法;米林、林芝古淹没事件可能是对多地点泥石流爆发的响应。对米林—加拉一线不同地点不同类型的泥石流灾害可能造成的不良环境效应进行评估后提出几点应对措施。     

Formation of glaciolacustrine Late Pleistocene end moraines in the Tasman Valley,New Zealand

Detailed examination of the Tekapo Formation in the Tasman Valley, New Zealand has identified 20 facies, and five facies associations. These associations are delta foresets and bottomsets, sediment density flows, ice-contact lake sediments with ice-rafted debris and resedimentation deposits, and outwash gravels. Interpretation of the sediment-landform associations informed by observations at modern glacier termini suggests that the Late Pleistocene Tekapo Formation moraines have been formed by downwasting of a more expanded Tasman Glacier. During the early stages of glacier retreat, ponds on the glacier surface develop into thermokarst lakes which enlarge and coalesce to form a large supraglacial lake. Continued downwasting causes the lake outlet river to entrench into the impounding latero-frontal ice-cored moraine, lowering the lake level. This exposes lake-bottom sediments and forms shorelines on the proximal slopes of the ice-cored moraine. As the ice-cored moraine melts, these lake sediments are deformed and deposited against the Mt. John moraine. The observations and interpretations reported here suggest the Late Pleistocene end moraine is a constructional feature not a structural (glaciotectonic) feature as suggested by previous studies.     

冰湖溃决泥石流形成的临界条件

随着全球气候的变暖, 在世界上许多高山峡谷区的冰湖溃决及其溃决洪水引发的泥石流, 经常对下游居民及其他基础设施造成极为严重的危害. 使用水槽试验的方法, 从单宽流量和库容、沟道纵坡、堆积物粒径3个方面探讨了冰湖溃决泥石流形成的影响因素和临界条件. 结果显示: 冰湖溃决泥石流形成与否不仅与溃决洪水提供的能量有关, 还与参与泥石流活动的沟床物质特性紧密相关. 通过对试验数据的分析, 当泥石流形成的特征参数K>2.66时, 冰湖溃决洪水可以演化为泥石流. 该种方法可以对危险性冰湖的预测提供理论参考.     

冰湖溃决泥石流的形成、演化与减灾对策

本文分析了主要由冰滑坡和冰崩入湖导致的冰湖溃决的机理和条件.进而,从气候条件、水文条件、终碛堤、冰湖规模、冰滑坡、沟床特征和固体物质补给等方面分析了冰湖溃决泥石流的形成条件和特点,归纳出冰湖溃决泥石流沿程演化的6种模式:溃决洪水-稀性泥石流、溃决洪水-黏性泥石流、溃决洪水-稀性泥石流-黏性泥石流、溃决洪水-黏性泥石流-稀性泥石流、溃决洪水-稀性泥石流-黏性泥石流-稀性泥石流和溃决洪水-黏性泥石流-稀性泥石流-洪水.针对冰湖溃决泥石流突发性强、频度低、洪峰高、流量大、流量过程暴涨暴落、破坏力强和灾害波及范围广等特点,提出了7点减灾对策.     

Controlled moraines: origins,characteristics and palaeoglaciological implications

Controlled moraines are supraglacial debris concentrations that become hummocky moraine upon de-icing and possess clear linearity due to the inheritance of the former pattern of debris-rich folia in the parent ice. Linearity is most striking wherever glacier ice cores still exist but it increasingly deteriorates with progressive melt-out. As a result, moraine linearity has a low preservation potential in deglaciated terrains but hummocky moraine tracts previously interpreted as evidence of areal stagnation may instead record receding polythermal glacier margins in which debris-rich ice was concentrated in frozen toe zones. Recent applications of modern glaciological analogues to palaeoglaciological reconstructions have implied that: (a) controlled moraine development can be ascribed to a specific process (e.g. englacial thrusting or supercooling); and (b) controlled moraine preservation potential is good enough to imply the occurrence of the specific process in former glacier snouts (e.g. ancient polythermal or supercooled snouts). These assumptions are tested using case studies of controlled moraine construction in which a wide range of debris entrainment and debris-rich ice thickening mechanisms are seen to produce the same geomorphic features. Polythermal conditions are crucial to the concentration of supraglacial debris and controlled moraines in glacier snouts via processes that are most effective at the glacier–permafrost interface. End moraines lie on a process–form continuum constrained by basal thermal regime. The morphological expression of englacial structures in controlled moraine ridges is most striking while the moraines retain ice cores, but the final deposits/landforms tend to consist of discontinuous transverse ridges with intervening hummocks, preserving only a weak impression of the former englacial structure. These are arranged in arcuate zones of hummocky moraine up to 2 km wide containing ice-walled lake plains and lying down flow of streamlined landforms produced by warm-based ice. A variety of debris entrainment mechanisms can produce the same geomorphic signature. Spatial and temporal variability in process–form relationships will lead to the sequential development of different types of end moraines during the recession of a glacier or ice sheet margin.     

Sedimentary facies and landform genesis at a temperate outlet glacier: Soler Glacier, North Patagonian Icefield

This paper focuses on the structural glaciology, dynamics, debris transport paths and sedimentology of the forefield of Soler Glacier, a temperate outlet glacier of the North Patagonian Icefield in southern Chile. The glacier is fed by an icefall from the icefield and by snow and ice avalanches from surrounding mountain slopes. The dominant structures in the glacier are ogives, crevasses and crevasse traces. Thrusts and recumbent folds are developed where the glacier encounters a reverse slope, elevating basal and englacial material to the ice surface. Other debris sources for the glacier include avalanche and rockfall material, some of which is ingested in marginal crevasses. Debris incorporated in the ice and on its surface controls both the distribution of sedimentary facies on the forefield and moraine ridge morphology. Lithofacies in moraine ridges on the glacier forefield include large isolated boulders, diamictons, gravel, sand and fine-grained facies. In relative abundance terms, the dominant lithofacies and their interpretation are sandy boulder gravel (ice-marginal), sandy gravel (glaciofluvial), angular gravel (supraglacial) and diamicton (basal glacial). Proglacial water bodies are currently developing between the receding glacier and its frontal and lateral moraines. The presence of folded sand and laminites in moraine ridges in front of the glacier suggests that, during a previous advance, Soler Glacier over-rode a former proglacial lake, reworking lacustrine deposits. Post-depositional modification of the landform/sediment assemblage includes melting of the ice-core beneath the sediment cover, redistribution of finer material across the proglacial area by aeolian processes and fluvial reworking. Overall, the preservation potential of this landform/sediment assemblage is high on the centennial to millennial timescale.     

Sediment record of short-lived ice-contact lakes, Burroughs Glacier, Alaska

Sediments deposited in two small ice-contact lakes with low rates of sediment input have been studied in subaerial exposures. Sediment characteristics are a function of the water source (glacial meltwater versus non-meltwater), proximity to the glacier margin and lake shore, amount of supraglacial debris, and lake duration. Calving Lake expanded (and later partially drained) as a calving ice margin retreated. Nearshore deltas contain 1 × 10⁵ m³ stratified sand and gravel deposited at rates up to 1 m/yr during a 9-yr interval. Deltaic sediment contains types A and B ripple-drift cross-lamination, draped lamination, and scour surfaces caused by variations in water-flow velocity and the amount of sediment settling from suspension. Most water inflow came from non-subglacial meltwater sources and was sediment-poor, so overflow and interflow sedimentation processes dominated the offshore environment. Offshore sediment generally contains massive silt or silt interbedded with fine-grained sand deposited at rates of 1.3-1.5 cm/yr. Iceberg gravity craters observed on the lake plain were formed when icebergs impacted the lake floor during calving events. In Bruce Hills Lake, proximity to glacier ice and the presence of supraglacial sediment formed coarsening-upward successions when debris fell directly from an ice ledge onto silty lacustrine sediment.     

Composition and genesis of glacial hummocks, western Wisconsin, USA

Glacial hummocks associated with the Superior Lobe in western Wisconsin are stagnant-ice features composed of melt-out till, meltwater-stream sediment, and flow till. The greater proportion of melt-out till in these hummocks than in hummocks described elsewhere suggests that a model of extensive, supraglacial reworking of supraglacially released debris does not apply to the western Wisconsin hummocks. Interpretation of melt-out till in hummock exposures is based on its strong fabric oriented parallel to regional ice-flow direction. Other features of this melt-out till include poorly developed stratification (color banding and discontinuous thin sandy lenses), and minor faulting, both of which support a melt-out origin. We suggest that as stagnant, debris-rich ice began to melt, supraglacially released debris was deposited as flow till and meltwater-stream sediment (with some debris-flow sediment and lake sediment), but as the thickness of supraglacial debris increased, debris melting out at depth was stabilized, allowing features characteristic of melt-out till to be retained. Because the supraglacial debris was sandy and the stagnant ice was likely at the pressure-melting point, the supraglacial debris was well drained and did not readily fail and flow. Debris volume in the glacier generally was greater at the glacier margin, but lateral and longitudinal variations within this zone were caused by thrusting, freezing-on, or ice-margin fluctuations, which in turn resulted in variations in hummock relief. Ice-walled-lake plains are commonly associated with the hummocks and developed where debris volume was small.